latter indulging the bent of their own genius, and disregarding the severe rules laid down by Aristoteles and his followers. Speaking generally, we may cite Shakspeare as a master of the romantic, and Racine of the classic style. Before Shakspeare, however, Peele and Marlowe had given to the English stage some tragedies of the romantic school; which, we may add, has always been most favoured by an English audience, Addison's 'Cato' being the only classical drama that ever attained any popularity in our theatres, and that owing its reputation rather to the literary fame of its author than to any intrinsic merits of its own. In France, on the other hand, the classical school long held possession of the stage, though its absurdities were vigorously ridiculed by Molière, and its example was openly defied by Voltaire. Germany has always been devoted to the romantic school, and its greatest tragic writer, Schiller, shows a complete independence of the Aristotelian unities. Alfieri, the most eminent Italian dramatist, modelled his tragedies, on the other hand, in strict conformity with the ancient models; but later writers, as Manzoni, Monti, and Niccolini, have diverged into newer and fresher paths.

modern times, 'that the practises are known, but the philosophy that concerneth them is not much enquired into.' This observation is thoroughly applicable to the training systems of our own day. They have arisen among us without any relation to physiological science, and they are entirely the result of observations and experiments made by uneducated men, whose deductions were much vitiated by prejudice.

The Greeks and Romans were thoroughly alive to the value of systematic preparation for athletic contests. Several classic writers have given us full and accurate accounts of their method, which Horace thus epitomizes: 'Qui studet optatim cursu contingere metam Multa tulit fecitque puer; sudavit et alsit, Abstinuit Venere et Baccho.'-De Art. Poet. The candidates for the simple prizes of their magnificent athletic contests passed through a course of preparation which lasted ten months; during that time they were restricted to a prescribed diet, and daily exercised themselves in the gymnasia, which had been erected in all the larger towns. These gymnasia were first built by the Lacedæmonians, from whom the Athenians afterwards copied them, building three, called respectively Our latest English dramatists are all followers of the Academia, Lyceum, and Gynoscerges. Not only were romantic school, at least all who have obtained accept- they taught in these buildings, by experienced instrucance on the stage. The most popular tragedies recently tors, boxing, wrestling, and all the various health-giving produced are those inspired by the genius of Joanna exercises of those days, but here also Plato and the most Baillie, Sheridan Knowles, Talfourd, and Dr. Westland distinguished philosophers trained the strongest minds Marston. A fine tragic poem, by Robert Browning, of Greece and Rome. The dietary of the ancient trainer 'The Blot on the 'Scutcheon,' and Mr. Henry Tayler's is diametrically opposed to the regimen of the present day. Philip Van Artevelde,' have also been successfully For the first week or two the diet of the athletes of acted, but their peculiar merits will best be appreciated old consisted of new cheese, boiled grain, and dried figs. by the student in his closet. After a while animal food was given to them, pork being the most highly esteemed, and it was considered necessary, not only to satisfy their appetites, but absolutely to gorge them with this food. In the training of boxers it was thought necessary to make them fat, with the view of deadening the blows inflicted by their adversaries; they were also taught to endure pain, and, as a means to that end, a beating with boughs of the prickly rhododendron was occasionally administered to them. The morals of professed athlete were condemned by all the writers of that time, and we are not surprised to find that Galen considered them a shortlived class of men. Nor is it very astonishing that, in the opinion of ancient physicians, the result of this gorging and fattening process was not a condition of perfect health. At the close of each day the Greek or Roman athlete bathed in tepid water, and was scraped over with the strygil, an instrument answering the purpose of the modern flesh-brush; he was then immediately anointed with oil, and having completed the labours of the day he dined.

TRA'GIA, a genus of plants of the natural family of Euphorbiacea. The species are found in India and in America, are climbing in habit, and some are remarkable for stinging as violently as nettles.

TRAGOPO'GON, or Goat's Beard, a genus of plants of the natural family of Cichoraceae, which is usually considered only a tribe of the great order of Composite. It is named from the long silky beard or pappus of the seeds. T. gracilis is found in the Himalaya mountains, and the leaves are eaten by the natives as lettuce is in Europe, but without being blanched. The best known species, however, is T. porrifolius, Salsify, which is occasionally cultivated in this country, but frequently in France and Germany. The roots are the parts esteemed; they are long and tapering, their flavour is mild and sweetish, and they are boiled or stewed like carrots. The stalks of year-old plants are sometimes cut in the spring, and, when similarly dressed, taste like asparagus.

TRAINING, PHYSICAL. The result of perfect physical training is that state in which a man is able to make the most vigorous and prolonged muscular effort of which his body is capable, and which, consequently, is the highest condition of health. Training is, or rather ought to be, only the strict observance of the laws of hygiene for a longer or shorter time, that the body generally, and in some cases one set of muscles particularly, may attain the maximum of strength. But there are systems which combine unnatural and unscientific dietaries with unduly severe exercise; these fail in their object, and induce a condition in which the waste is made to exceed the supply. Though trainers seldom commit both, there are few of them who do not fall into one or the other of these great errors. In his book, 'The Advancement of Learning,' Lord Bacon observes, when alluding to the athletic exercises of ancient and

The practice of training arose in England between the years 1720 and 1750, when pugilism became a national pastime, and the celebrated boxer, Gentleman Jackson, reduced it to a system which was, perhaps, rather in advance of the science of his day. (See detailed account in Todd and Bowman's 'Physiology.) Many professional athletes, even now, when in training, adhere to the rules laid down by that worthy, while others have the highest veneration for the traditional precepts of a certain 'Old Joe Ward,' whose 'three threes' were received with implicit faith by the pugilistic fraternity until a very recent date-'three doses of salts, three sweats, three vomits, for three weeks, with victuals three parts done.'

A nearer approximation to scientific truth was made when large numbers of gentlemen began to train for

No sudden transition from sedentary occupations to a life of vigorous exertion is desirable or safe. The daily amount of exercise should be gradually increased for three or four weeks before strict training commences. The period of preparation for an athletic contest cannot well be too long, but no great feat of strength should be attempted without a probation of, at the shortest, six weeks' duration. The athlete will do well to wean himself from the use of tobacco and fermented liquors, as both should be prohibited when regular training is commenced. He should also accustom himself to early

hours.

boat races. They adopted a much more liberal and nutritious. Less vegetable food is required if a little varied diet, and the prejudice in favour of what was ripe fruit be taken after dinner. Light puddings and called 'Iron Ring,' or 'all potent water gruel,' and other jelly need not be forbidden, but trifle and similar confabled strength-givers, is, in consequence of their exam- fectionery should not be tasted. The best drink at this ple, rapidly dying out. meal is either water or milk. Bread made from flour which contains the dressing or internal covering of the grain, is better than either bran or fine white bread. The severest work should be undertaken during the hours intervening between dinner and supper. For two or three hours after dinner, no severe exertion is permitted, but a quiet stroll, a game of quoits, or croquet, or bowls will be beneficial. It is a customary but erroneous practice to get through the most of the daily work of training, before the principal meal of the day has been eaten. We are in the most favourable condition for great and prolonged muscular exertion after this meal has been assimilated; the reinforced blood is then prepared to replace at once the waste of tissue which all effort, whether mental or muscular, invariably entails. Nor is the stomach prepared to digest a heavy meal soon after exhaustive exercise, for then the current of blood is diverted to the extremities, and away from the stomach, which requires a vigorous circulation in its parietes while performing the important function of digestion. At seven or half-past seven a chop, some cold meat, or oatmeal porridge made with milk, bread or toast, and tea will constitute the athlete's evening meal. Dr. Letheby, quoting Lehman, declares that tea and coffee greatly diminish the wear and tear of the system; they oil the machinery as it were, and check the waste of friction, for those who use them find that during active exercise the destruction of tissue is prevented, and there is less demand for food. Green tea should not be used.

The kind of exercise and the severity of it will vary with the object in view. If training for matches, in which a long distance is to be rowed or run, the course should be traversed twice in the day, both in the morning and in the afternoon, gradually increasing the speed for the first eight or ten days. After that time the distance should be gone over once daily at the highest possible speed, and the time occupied in doing this should be carefully noted. When the match is only for some distance under one mile, the length of the course and a little further, should be traversed three or four times each day.

The day having now arrived when systematic training is entered upon, the athlete should leave his bed at about seven o'clock, and immediately take a cold bath; not later than eight in the morning, and before any work has been done, his breakfast should be served. This meal may consist of broiled or cold roast beef, mutton, chicken, or game. The meat should always be well cooked, and not underdone. There is no better beverage than tea not taken too hot or strong. Those who are not of a bilious habit may substitute milk. No greater quantity of these drinks should be taken than a pint and a half per diem, but this may be supplemented by as much water as is desired. Other fluids might be drank merely to gratify the sense of taste; water will not be imbibed unless to supply the requirements of the system, which are indicated by the natural sensation of thirst. It is, of course, supposed that no one in an abnormal or diseased condition will undertake so severe a trial as is involved in a course of athletic training. Though neither eggs nor milk is a suitable article of diet for individuals of a bilious tendency, they both contain very much nutriment, a large proportion of which is of the heat-giving or fat-forming kind; these carboniferous foods are, as much as possible, eliminated from training dietaries; but even if it were possible it would be a great error to exclude them entirely. A certain proportion of the carboniferous elements of food seems to be used in the nutrition of the nerve tissues, and it will probably be discovered that the non-nitrogenous A crew preparing for a boat-race should proceed in foods afford more histogenetic material than is generally the cautious manner before recommended for the first credited to them. We may therefore add either eggs or week or ten days; afterwards, each morning, they must milk to the list of edibles for breakfast and supper, as row over the appointed course against time.' In the they are more easily assimilated than most highly car-afternoon a long row, at a steady pace, extending over boniferous substances. The most digestible food should as long a distance as can be accomplished without disalways be selected on the principle of economizing force, tressing the men, will be of the greatest advantage. and also to secure an earlier fitness for active exercise, The crew, on getting out of their boat, would do well which may be commenced about two hours after break- to start for a run of at least two miles, and the pace fast, when a sharp run, row, or other strong effort will may reach the rate of one mile in seven minutes, after be well borne. Exercise should be continued, with only the first week or two. It will be best to exclude all short intermissions, until one o'clock; half an hour will condiments, except salt, from the training dietary. then be occupied in rubbing the skin with hard towels, Artificial methods of inducing profuse secretion from putting on dry flannels, and otherwise preparing for the skin, by means of packing in wet sheets, extra dinner. As a rule this meal will consist of either broiled clothing, &c., are highly objectionable. Rapid and or roast meats, but boiled viands may be substituted for vigorous exercise is the only healthy method of reducing them occasionally by way of a change. Game, including fat, and in this way strength is gained, and not lost, in venison, pigeons, and wild rabbits, yield much muscle- the process. The sleep which we obtain in the early forming food, also beef, mutton, and fowls. The white-morning hours, as Professor Playfair has shown, is not fleshed fishes and trout will serve as an occasional variety, so valuable as that which we get before twelve at night. but it is better to avoid the red-fleshed fishes and eels. Most men, when working hard, require eight hours' Pork, veal, goose, lamb, duck, and all salt meats must sleep. For these and other reasons men in training be eschewed. A little vegetable should be eaten; cau- should be in bed by half-past ten o'clock. liflower, spinach, peas and beans, are among the most

No one who p:oposes to engage in athletic contests

should require physic, either immediately before or succeeded to the imperial throne, and soon proved that during training, for these contests are searching ordeals he deserved his elevation. His virtues and eminent which none but the healthy can safely undergo. After the first day or two of regular exercise, the stomach and other viscera, if free from disease, will perform their various duties without the stimulus of medicine.

It is highly important to provide that the period of training be made as pleasant and agreeable as possible to the athlete. Unwilling and reluctant labour is injurious rather than beneficial to the health and strength. And perhaps the best means of keeping the body in a state fitted for exertion, is to be found in the regular use of such places as the Royal Gymnasium, Edinburgh, which has the advantage of being in the open air, and in addition to a race-course, contains much novel and useful apparatus, well-suited to the gradual development of the muscles and of the system generally.

TRAJANO'POLIS ('the city of Trajan'), or Selinus, was the most western town of Cilicia. The Emperor Trajanus having died at Selinus, this town received its classical appellation. It was situated at the mouth of the river Selinus, on a steep rock, surrounded on three sides by the sea.

Another Trajanopolis was situated in Mysia, between Antandrus and Adramyttium.

A third Trajanopolis was a town in Thrace, most probably built by the Emperor Trajan, who adorned it with beautiful buildings. It was situated on the river Hebrus, at a little distance north of the pass which is formed by this river through the range of Mount Rhódope, and about 40 miles from its mouth. The modern town is on the Maritza, or Hebrus, on or very near the site of the ancient. It is the see of a Greek archbishop, and a small place of no importance.

TRAJAN'S PILLAR, a distinguished work of art, executed by Apollodorus of Athens, which formerly stood in the centre of the Roman forum, and still remains as an historical record of Trajan's reign, and one of the finest specimens of artistic skill. It was erected in 114, to commemorate the emperor's victories over the Dacians; and is entirely surrounded with bas-reliefs of his exploits, amounting to about 2000 heads. The figures have very little relief. Those at the bottom of the column are 2 feet high; and those at the top appear of the same size, because the artist made allowance for the law of perspective, and enlarged his figures in proportion as they approached the summit. The pillar is built of white marble; and its base, which consists of twelve enormous-sized stones, is raised on a socle, or foot of eight steps; and in the interior is a staircase, which receives its light from forty-four windows. Its height is 144 feet; and its sculptured ornaments are considered superior to those of the Antonine column, which is 35 feet higher.

TRAJANUS, MARCUS ULPIUS NERVA, was most probably born in A.D. 53, at Itálica, the present Alcalà del Rio, on the Guadalquivir, not far from Sevilla in Spain. He distinguished himself at an early age in the wars against the Parthians and the Jews, became consul in A.D. 91; and afterwards commanded the legions on the Lower Rhine. His military talents and his amiable character made him popular with the troops; and the Emperor Nerva adopted him in A.D. 97, and chose him for his successor. This was a novel event in Roman history, the imperial throne having hitherto been exclusively occupied by members of the old Roman aristocracy. Trajan was the first emperor born beyond the limits of Italy.

On the death of Nerva, in January, A.D. 98, Trajan

qualities are commemorated in the panegyric which Pliny the Younger read in the senate A.D. 100. In 103 Pliny, who was a personal friend of the emperor. was appointed proconsul of Bithynia and Pontus. The letters that passed between them are the best sources with regard to his private character.

In A.D. 100 Trajan crossed the Danube to oppose the Daciæ; and in 102 their king Decébalus submitted and gave up part of his territory. Decebalus broke the peace in 104, and Trajan again advanced against him. To secure a passage over the Danube, he constructed the great bridge of which Dion Cassius has 1 given a description. Decébalus was defeated, and killed himself, and in 106 Dacia was made a Roman province and colonized by Roman settlers. To commemorate the emperor's Dacian victories, a column was erected in 114, by the architect Apollodórus, on the Forum Trajani, which still remains. [TRAJAN'S PILLAR.]

After the conquest of Dacia eight years of peace elapsed, which Trajan employed in a wise and liberal administration, and in adorning Rome with beautiful buildings; he also founded a library, the Bibliothéca Ulpia, and an institution for the education of poor children of Italian parents. In 114 he left Rome to lead his armies against the Parthians, who were defeated, and in one campaign he conquered Mesopotamia and delivered Armenia. He took up his winter quarters at Antioch, relieved the Syrians, who were suffering from the consequences of a violent earthquake, and in the following year opened a new campaign. He crossed the Tigris, and the Parthians having again been defeated, captured the towns of Nisibis, Edessa, Ctesiphon, and Seleuceia; and Babylonia, Assyria, Armenia, and Mescpotamia became Roman provinces. He then sailed with his fleet on the Tigris to the Persian Gulf, and when he had reached the sea, the example of Alexander suggested to him the idea of conquering India; but remembering his advanced age, he renounced that scheme. In 117 he made an incursion into Arabia, and ordered a fleet to be stationed in the Red Sea. Suffering from dropsy, he set out for Rome; but he died on his way at Selinus, a town in Cilicia [TRAJANOPOLIS], in August, 117, at the age of sixty-three years nine months and four days, according to Eutropius. He was succeeded by Hadrianus.

TRAJECTORY, the technical name which was formerly given to a curve. It now designates a curve which enters into all curves of a given system at the same angle. If the angle be a right angle, the curve is said to be an orthogonal trajectory.

TRALEE. [KERRY.]

TRAM-WAY. A road prepared for the easy transit of trains or waggons by forming the wheel tracks of smooth beams of wood, blocks of stone, or plates of iron. It may be described as a species of railway adapted for the passage of carriages or waggons with wheels of the ordinary form.

TRANCE. [CATALEPSY.]

TRA'NI, a town in Southern Italy, situated on the coast, 26 miles N.W. from Bari, in the province of Terra di Bari, gives title to an archbishop, and has 22,702 inhabitants. The civil and criminal courts of appeal for the provinces of Terra di Bari and Terra d'Otranto hold their sittings in Trani. The town is well built, is surrounded by a wall with towers and moats, and is entered by three gates. It has a castle, erected by the emperor Frederick II.; a handsome cathedral, several

'Primitive' and 'Secondary' were much in use among distinguished from Rotation, in the following manner:geologists, certain assemblages of rocks, which were of A body has motion of translation when all its points intermediate position, and seemed to unite the mineral move in parallel straight lines; when, in fact, all its aspect of the primitive with the organic enrichments of points have the same motion. If all have not the same the secondary, were for these reasons called 'Transition.' motion, there is either simple rotation, that is, about The term was very extensively used by the pupils of one permanent axis; or rotation about a varying axis; Werner, and maintained, till within a few years, an or else a compound of translation and rotation. The important place in geological nomenclature. This classi-motion of a single point must always be called transiafication has since been altered, and the original classes tion, rotation being an inadmissible idea. of primary and secondary rocks are now referred to the Palæozoic period.