torture. As soon as the operation is performed let the animal be walked about for an hour or so, this will prevent local congestion, than which nothing can be so hurtful.

Castration by Ligature is to tie the testicle and scotum tightly compressed between two pieces of wood, when mortification soon ensues, and they drop off, or otherwise to tie a thin cord tightly round the bag, near the belly, this process stops the circulation of the blood, and the testicle and bag drop off in the course of a few days-both these methods are dangerous and sadly cruel towards the horse, they prolong the pain, and frequently cause inflammation and death.

Castration by Excision is performed after the manner of operation on a human being, but so many eminent veterinary practitioners have lost horses by it that they seldom make a practice of adopting this method, although a few still adhere to it as producing less pain, and the animal is sooner brought round again than by any other process. In Prussia the method is very general.

When the operation has been carefully performed, morbid consequences seldom occur. Exercise is required to prevent swelling of the parts. Good Good green food, cool air, and early evacuations, will soon restore the animal to condition; when any inflammation follows, bleeding and fomentation will be found necessary, then rub a little digestive ointment over the scotum and sheath.

It cannot be doubted that the best operators in this case are always the common country farriers, who from devoting themselves entirely to the occupation soon become proficients. "Practice makes perfect," is a very common saying, and certainly the manual dexterity exhibited by these men would astonish at times the

most efficient professor of veterinary science. Impressed with the idea that expertness and promptitude in many operations are essential to the welfare of the horse and the pocket of the owner, many prefer these farriers to the more scientific veterinarian, and these gentlemen often recommend their employment. An example may illustrate this:-Mr. Blaine was sent for to fire a valuable horse, the property of J. Bean, Esq., Sussex; he gives the following account of it :

"It was my first essay in firing on my own account, and fired as I was with my wishes to signalise myself, I laboured to enter my novitiate with all due honour. The farrier of the village was ordered to attend, a sturdy old man, civil enough, but looking as though impressed with no very high respect fora gentleman-farrier's knowledge. The horse was cast, (I daresay awkwardly enough), and secured, as will appear, even more so. I however proceeded to show the superiority of the new over the old school. I had just then left the Veterinary College, not as a pupil, but as a teacher, which I only mention to mark the climax. On the very first application of the iron up started my patient, flinging me and my assistants in all directions from him, while he trotted and snorted round the yard with rope, &c., at his heels. As may be supposed, I was taken aback, and might have gone back as I came, had not the old farrier, with much good humour, caught the horse round the neck with his arms, and by some dexterous manœuvre brought him on his knees, when, with a jerk as quick as unexpected, he threw him at once on his side, where our immediate assistance fixed him, and we proceeded. It is needless to remark I retired mortified, and left the village-farrier lord of the ascendant."

In France, and many other parts, castration by

means of the clams is a very general method, but to this there are attached many disadvantages, and our professors do not approve of it altogether. It is the most ancient system of operation, and was used by the ancient Greeks.

SHOEING.

Or all the operations to which the horse in his domesticated state is subjected, the most important and necessary is Shoeing; and having, on that account, occupied the deepest study, it has consequently, of late years, been much improved.

No precise date can be fixed as to when shoeing was first commenced, and by whom introduced. But we are informed William I., better known as the Conqueror, established the custom in England. The present artificial improvements in the art of road-making urges the utility of the operation, in order to protect the hoof from injury, and to prevent it from being too speedily worn down, although unfortunately, in some cases, it entails on the animals, even where the greatest care is used, unavoidable evils, such as contraction of the feet, lameness, &c.

Many of the evil consequences of shoeing arise from the operator having but a very imperfect knowledge of the structure and various functions of the feet. The following observations are necessary to be borne in mind:

1. The hoof is divided into four parts, namely, the wall or crust, the bars, the sole, and the horny frog. 2. The natural form of the hoof is invariably cir

cular in its healthy state, hence it necessarily follows that in shoeing that form should be preserved as nearly as possible.

3. The contents, or internal cavity of the hoof, when free from disease, is occupied by the sensible parts of the foot, namely, the coffin-bone, the sensible sole, the sensible frog, the navicular bone, and numerous cartilages.

4. The crust is a little more than half an inch thick at the toe, gradually becoming thinner towards the quarter and heels.

5. The obliquity of the crust varies in different horses; in sound feet it rests flat on the ground, and slants backwards in an angle of forty-five degrees; when the crust has "fallen in " more than this, disease generally ensues.

6. The inside of the crust is united to the extreme bone of the foot by a number of sensible laminæ, very elastic in their nature.

7. By these lamina the whole weight of the horse is supported, and their elasticity prevents concussion.

8. The bars are a continuation of the crust, forming an angle at the heels, and terminating in a point at the toe of the frog.

9. The internal portion of the bars, like the crust, are formed of lamina; hence, it would appear, they are part of the same substance, and placed there to fulfil the same office, namely, to prevent separation and dislocation of the horny from the sensible portion of the foot.

10. The horny sole is more elastic than the crust; by its descent at the heels, and the power of expansion, it preserves the sensible sole from pressure. Equal danger is to be apprehended from the want of concavity in the sole as from there existing too much.

11. The external frog is convex, and although horny and insensible, is softer and more elastic than the sole; their nature is totally distinct, yet they are firmly united.

12. The sensible frog corresponds with the horny in form, is very elastic, and united by cartilages.

13. The use of the frog is to give safety to the pace of the animal, and prevent it from slipping: the sensible and horny frogs, by their great elasticity, act as a spring, and at the same time are powerful agents in expanding the heels: when the frog is too much elevated above the ground, and its substance cut or worn away, contraction of the foot must follow. Some writers, among whom is Mr. St. Bel, assert that the frogs are to protect the tendon; this notion is now exploded.

14. The foot is filled with nervous fibres, ligaments, cartilages, blood-vessels, &c., and consequently highly sensible and elastic.

The hoof of a colt feels no inconvenience from the hardest roads; the necessity of employing a shoe, however, is unavoidable, since by friction the hoof is rapidly worn away. Shoes are not required to be broad in the surface, indeed the narrower they are the better and firmer hold the foot will have, especially on turf or soft slippery ground.

The greatest evil in shoeing arises from the introduction of nails; and notwithstanding many men of note in the veterinary art have strenuously laboured to obviate the mischief, or to discover some new and better mode of fixing the shoe, their efforts have not hitherto been crowned with success.

Great ignorance was displayed in the earlier methods of shoeing: the bars were totally cut away, and the frog considerably pared down; the shoe was badly