III. Such is the nature, and such are the species of the parallelisms, which are variously distributed throughout the Old Testament. Nor should it be omitted that the Hebraic parallelism occurs also, with much variety, in the Apocrypha: the book of Ecclesiasticus, for example, is composed of pure parallelisms. One other fact remains namely, that, in the sententious formula of the rabbinical writers, the manner of Hebrew poetry is frequently observed, with much accuracy, though with a manifest declension of spirit.' Such being the fact, we are authorized by analogy to expect a similar parallelism in the New Testament. It is a work supplementary to and perfective of the Old Testament; composed under the same guidance; written by native Jews, Hebrews of the Hebrews, by men whose minds were moulded in the form of their own sacred writings, and whose sole stock of literature (with the exception of Paul, and probably also of Luke and James) was comprised in those very writings. Now, it is improbable that such men, when they came to write such a work, should, without any assignable motive, and in direct opposition to all other religious teachers of their nation, have estranged themselves from a manner, so pervading the noblest parts of the Hebrew Scriptures, as the sententious parallelism. But we are not left to analogical reasoning. The Greek style of the New Testament leads us to expect a construction similar to that which we find in the Old. The New Testament is not written in what is termed strictly classical Greek. From the intermixture of oriental idioms and expressions with those which are properly Greek, the language of the New Testament has been termed Hellenistic or Hebraic Greek. The difference in style and manner which subsists between the writers of the New Testament and the Greek classic authors is most strongly marked; and this difference is not confined to single words and combinations of words, but pervades the whole structure of the composition; and in frequent instances a poetical manner is observable. This poetical style has been noticed briefly by Boecler, Ernesti, Michaelis, Schleusner, Dr. Campbell, and other critics; but it was reserved for Bishop Jebb to develope the existence of the poetical parallelism in the New Testament, and to place its numerous beauties in a point of view equally novel and delightful to the biblical student. [Ingenious men have carried their notions of parallelism to an extreme. It may be questioned whether the inspired writers really intended to produce all those varieties of verses, stanzas, &c., which have been ascribed to them. That the general principles of parallelism are distinctly to be traced in Hebrew poetry no one would deny ; but the minute subdivisions, under which different passages have been ranked, seem hardly to exist save in the imagination of the fanciful critic. To the term "gradational parallel" there appears some objection. In several of the examples usually adduced of it there is no real gradation of thoughts: either "synonymous," or "cognate,” would Sacred Literature, p. 76. Bp. Jebb has illustrated the remarks in the text by nume rous apposite examples from the apocryphal and rabbinical writings; for which the reader is referred to his work, pp. 84-90. be better appellations. The "introverted parallel," too, is a mere sequence of clause after clause, and seems to have been thought of only in order to account for examples not easily reducible to any of the other heads. With the licence assumed by some writers on the subject, it would be no difficult matter to arrange almost every composition, especially of an elevated or oratorical cast, in parallelisms of some kind. De Wette has written at length on Hebrew rhythmical parallelism. His system is elaborate and ingenious. According to his view there are four different classes. I. The " original perfect kind of parallelism of members, which coincides with metre and rhyme, yet without being the same with them. Such is the kind of parallelism in which the song of Lamech is composed, Gen. iv. 23, 24." II. The unequal parallelism, Psal. Ixviii. 32., subdivided into — (1.) The simple unequal. (2.) The complex, with the first or second member composed of two propositions, embracing (a) The synonymous. (b) The antithetic. (c) The synthetic. (3.) That with the simple member disproportionably small. (5.) That with a short clause or supplement, for the most III. The double parallelism, "the equality being restored by both members becoming complex," e.g. Psal. xxxi. 10. Of this kind also there are (a) The synonymous. (b) The antithetic. IV. The rhythmical parallelism, where the thoughts do not correspond either by their resemblance, or by antithesis, or by synthesis, but where there is a simply external rhythmical form, e.g. Psal. xix. 11. This is subdivided into examples : (1.) With the number of words nearly equal. (2.) With striking inequality in the number of the words. (3.) With a double and a simple member. (4.) With two double members.1 De Wette, Köster, and Ewald have further attempted to show that there is a strophical character in Hebrew poetry. Verses con sist of parallel members; and so strophes are said to be composed of parallel verses. Köster published, it seems, the books of Job, and of Ecclesiastes, and the Psalms, arranged after this fashion.2 De Wette, On the Rhythmical Parallelism of the Hebrews, translated by Torrey, in the American Biblical Repository, July, 1833, and reprinted by the Rev. N. Morren, in Biblical Theology: the Rule of Faith, Edinb. 1835, Append., pp 1-31. Conf. Einleitung, §§ 127-134. De Wette, Einleitung, § 134. But perhaps it is into the New Testament that the greatest amount of exaggeration has been carried. That Hebrew parallelism may be discovered there, it is but reasonable to admit; seeing that there are several inspired songs (e.g. Luke i. ii.), that quotations from the poetical portions of the Old Testament are numerous, and that the apostles and evangelists had naturally their minds impregnated with the modes of diction used by the writers of the earlier dispensation. But it is profitless to follow Bishop Jebb into the various couplets and stanzas which he professes to find in our Lord's discourses and elsewhere. Still more useless are the lucubrations of Boys, who has arranged in his Tactica Sacra several of the epistles in parallel lines. And this trifling is carried still farther by Forbes in his Symmetrical Structure of Scripture. It would be of little service to produce examples from their works.] IV. The sacred writers have left us DIFFERENT KINDS of poetical composition: they do not, however, appear to have cultivated either the epic or the dramatic species, unless we take these terms in a very wide sense, and refer to these classes those poems in which several interlocutors are introduced. Thus, Ilgen and (after him) Dr. Good conceive the book of Job to be a regular epic poem: while Velthusen and Ammon think that the Song of Songs exhibits traces. of a dramatic or melo-dramatic structure. Bishop Lowth, however, reduces the various productions of the Hebrew poets to the following classes; viz. 1. PROPHETIC POETRY. Although some parts of the writings of the prophets are clearly in prose, of which instances occur in the prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Jonah, and Daniel, yet the other books, constituting by far the larger portion of the prophetic writings, are classed by Bishop Lowth among the poetical productions of the Jews; and (with the exception of certain passages in Isaiah, Habakkuk, and Ezekiel, which appear to constitute complete poems of different kinds, odes as well as elegies) form a particular species of poesy, which he distinguishes by the appellation of prophetic. The predictions of the Hebrew prophets are pre-eminently characterized by the sententious parallelism, which has been discussed and exemplified in the preceding pages. The prophetic poesy, however, is more ornamented, more splendid, and more florid than any other. It abounds more in imagery, at least that species of imagery which, in the parabolic style, is of common and established acceptation, and which, by means of a settled analogy always preserved, is transferred from certain and definite objects to express indefinite and general ideas. Of all the images peculiar to the parabolic style, it most frequently introduces those which are taken from natural objects and sacred history: it abounds most in metaphors, allegories, comparisons, and even in copious and diffuse descriptions. It possesses all that genuine enthusiasm which is the See some very sensible remarks by Fairbairn, Herm. Man. part i. sect. x. pp. 166— 180. Jobi, antiquissimi carminis Hebraici, Natura atque Virtutes, cap. iii. pp. 40—89. Introductory Dissertation to his version of the Book of Job, p. xx. natural attendant on inspira ion: it excels in the brightness of imagination, and in clearness and energy of diction, and, consequently, rises to an uncommon pitch of sublimity: hence, also, it is often very happy in the expression and delineation of the passions, though more commonly employed in exciting them.' The following passage from one of l'alaam's prophecies (which Bishop Lowth ranks among the most exquisite specimens of Hebrew poetry) exhibits a prophetic poem complete in all its parts. It abounds in splendid imagery, copied immediately from the tablet of nature, and is conspicuous for the glowing elegance of the style, and the form and diversity of the figures. The translation is that of the Rev. Dr. Hales.2 How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob, And thy tabernacles, O Israel ! As streams do they spread forth, As gardens by the river side; As sandal-trees which THE LORD hath planted, As cedar-trees beside the waters. There shall come forth a man of his seed, And shall rule over many nations; (God brought him forth out of Egypt, And pierce them through with his arrows. He lieth down as a lion, He coucheth as a lioness: Who shall rouse him? Blessed is he that blesseth thee, And cursed is he that curseth thee, Numb. xxiv. 5-9 2. ELEGIAC POETRY. Of this description are several passages in the prophetical books 3, as well as in the book of Job, and many of David's psalms that were composed on occasions of distress and mourning the forty-second psalm in particular is in the highest degree tender and plaintive, and is one of the most beautiful specimens of the Hebrew elegy. The lamentation of David over his friend Jonathan (2 Sam. i. 17-27.) is another most beautiful elegy; but the most regular and perfect elegiac composition is the book entitled The Lamentations of Jeremiah. 3. DIDACTIC POETRY is defined by Bishop Lowth to be that which delivers moral precepts in elegant and pointed verses, often illustrated by a comparison expressed or implied, similar to the youn, or moral sentence, or adage, of the ancient sages. Of this species of poetry the book of Proverbs is the principal instance. To this class may be referred the book of Ecclesiastes. 4. Of LYRIC POETRY, or that which is intended to be accompanied with music, the Old Testament abounds with numerous 'Bp. Lowth, Lectures on Hebrew Poetry, lect. xviii., xix., and xx. 2 Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. book i. pp. 224-226., or vol. ii. pp. 204, 205. (edit. 1830). See Amos v. 1, 2, 16.; Jer. ix. 17-22.; Ezek. xxii. and xxxii. examples. Besides a great number of hymns and songs which are dispersed through the historical and prophetical books, such as the ode of Moses at the Red Sea (Exod. xv.), his prophetic ode (Deut. xxxii.), the triumphal ode of Deborah (Judg. v.), the prayer of Habakkuk (iii.), and many similar pieces, the entire book of Psalms is to be considered as a collection of sacred odes. 5. Of the IDYL, or short pastoral poem', the historical psalms afford abundant instances. The seventy-eighth, hundred and fifth, hundred and sixth, hundred and thirty-sixth, and the hundred and thirty-ninth psalms, may be adduced as singularly beautiful specimens of the sacred idyl; to which may be added Isai. ix. 8. —x. 4. 6. Of DRAMATIC POETRY, Bishop Lowth adduces examples in the book of Job and the Song of Solomon, understanding the term in a more extended sense than that in which it is usually received.2 Some critics, however, are of opinion that the Song of Solomon is a collection of sacred idyls; and Bauer is disposed to consider the former book as approximating nearest to the Mekàma, that is, "the assemblies," moral discourses, or conversations of the celebrated Arabian poet Hariri.3 Many of the psalms (and, according to Bishop Horsley, by far the greater part,) are a kind of dramatic ode, consisting of dialogues between persons sustaining certain characters. This dramatic or dialogue form admits of considerable variety. Its leading characteristic, however, is an alternate succession of parts, adapted to the purpose of alternate recitation of two semi-choruses in the Jewish worship. To the preceding species of Hebrew poetry, we may add 7. The ACROSTIC or ALPHABETICAL POEMS. Bishop Lowth considered this form of poetry as one of the leading characteristics of the productions of the Hebrew muse; but this, we have seen", is not the fact. It may rather be viewed as a subordinate species, the form of which the bishop thus defines: The acrostic or alphabetical poem consists of twenty-two lines, or of twenty-two systems of lines, or periods, or stanzas, according to the number of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet; and every line, or every stanza, begins with each letter in its order, as it stands in the alphabet; that is, the first line, or first stanza, begins with &, the second with 2, and so on. was certainly intended for the assistance of the memory, and was chiefly employed in subjects of common use, as maxims of morality, and forms of devotion. There are in the books of the Old Testament twelve of these poems: three perfectly alphabetical, in which 6 This 1 Bp. Lowth defines an idyl to be "a poem of moderate length, of a uniform middle style, chiefly distinguished for elegance and sweetness, regular and clear as to plot, conduct, and arrangement." Prælect. xxix. Lowth, Prælect. xxx-xxxiv. Bauer, Hermeneut. Sacr. p. 386. 4 Bishop Horsley, Book of Psalms translated from the Hebrew, vol. i. pref. p. xv. [Horsley's view is exaggerated.] See p. 364. supra. Psal. xxv., xxxiv, xxxvii., cxi., cxii., cxix., cxlv.; Prov. xxxi. 10–31.; Lain. i., ii., iii., iv. 'Psal. cxi., cxii.; Lam. iii. |