viii. 1, 2. ; 2 Sam. xvi. 2.; in which three passages, as also in Isai. xvi. 9., the Hebrew is only summer). And also the passover is put for the lamb which was slain and eaten on that solemn festival, Exod. xii. 21.; 2 Chron. xxx. 17.; Matt. xxvi. 17-19.; Mark xiv. 12, 14.; Luke xxii. 8, 11, 13, 15. XV. In the Scriptures, things are sometimes named or described according to appearances, or to the opinion formed of them by men, and not as they are in their own nature. Thus, Hananiah, the opponent of Jeremiah, is called a prophet, not because he was truly one, but was reputed to be one, Jer. xxviii. 1, 5, 10. In Ezek. xxi. 3., the righteous mean those who had the semblance of piety, but really were not righteous. So in Matt. ix. 13., Christ says, I am not come to call the righteous (that is, such as are so in their own estimation), but sinners to repentance. See further Luke xviii. 9. and Rom. x. 2, 3, &c. In Luke ii. 48., Joseph is called the father of Christ, and in v. 41. is mentioned as one of his parents, because he was reputed to be his father, as the same evangelist states in chap. iii. 23. Compare John vi. 42, &c. The preaching of the gospel is in 1 Cor. i. 21. termed foolishness; not that it was really such, but was accounted to be so by its opponents. In like manner false teaching is called another gospel in Gal. i. 6 ; and Epimenides, the Cretan philosopher, is termed a prophet in Tit. i. 12., because his countrymen regarded him as such, and after his death offered sacrifices to him.2 His enemies shall lick the dust, Psal. lxxii. 9., means that they shall prostrate themselves so low towards the earth, that they shall seem to lick the dust. Similar expressions occur in Isai. xlix. 23.; Micah vii. 17, &c. The phrase, coming from a far country, and from the end of heaven, in Isai xiii. 5., is taken from the opinion which anciently obtained, and was founded on the appearance to the eye, viz. that the heavens are not spherical but hemispherical, ending at the extremities of the earth, upon which the extremities of heaven appear to rest. ence the ends of the earth denote the remotest places. The same phrase occurs in Deut. iv. 32. and xxx. 4.; Neh. i. 9.; Matt. xxiv. 31. XVI. Sometimes the action or affection, which is conversant about any object, or placed upon it, is put for the object itself. Thus, the senses are put for the objects perceived by them, as hearing for doctrine or speech, in Isai. xxviii. 9. (marg. rend.), and liii. 1. (Heb.). In John xii. 38., and Rom. x. 16., the Greek word ȧkoń, translated report, literally means hearing, and so it is rendered in Gal. iii. 2, 5. Hearing is also put for fame or rumour in Psal. cxii. 7. (Heb.); Ezek. vii. 26.; Obad. 1.; Hab. iii. 2 (Heb.); Matt. iv. 24., xiv. 1., and xxiv. 6.; Mark i. 28., and xiii. 7, &c. The eye, in the original of Numb. xi. 7.; Lév. xiii. 55.; Prov. xxiii. 31.; Ezek. i. 4., viii. 2, and x. 9., is put for colours which are seen by the eye. Faith denotes the doctrine, received and believed by faith, in Acts vi. 7.; Gal. i. 23., and iii. 23, 25.; Eph. iv. 5.; 1 Tim. iv. 1.; Tit. i. 13.; Jude 3.; Rev. ii. 13. Hope, in Psal. lxv. 5., and lxxi. 5.; Jer. xiv. 8., and xvii. 7, 13., is God, in whom we have hope, or place our confidence. Hope also denotes Christ, or the benefits which we receive by him, in Acts xxvi. 6-8., xxviii. 20.; Col. i. 27.; 1 Tim. i. 1. Hope is sometimes also put for men, in whom we confide, or from whom we expect some good, as in Isai. xx. 5, 6., and for the thing hoped for, as in Prov. xiii. 12; Rom. viii. 24., and Gal. v. 5., in which last place the hope of righteousness by faith means eternal life, which is promised to the just by faith, and also in Tit. ii. 13. Love is put for the object of affection, Jer. ii. 33., and xii. 7. (marginal rendering). Desire, Ezek. xxiv. 16, 21., is the thing desired. In like manner, the lust or desire of the eyes, 1 John ii. 16., is the object of the eyes which we eagerly desire. So fear is put for the object that is feared, in Psal. liii. 5.; Prov. i. 26.; Isai. viii. 13. XVII. Sometimes the sign is put for the thing signified. Thus, sovereign power and authority are expressed by a sceptre, crown, diadem, throne, and shutting and opening without resistance in Gen. xlix. 10.; Isai. xxii. 22.; Ezek. xxi. 26.; Zech. x. 11.; and Rev. iii. 7. War is denoted by bows, spears, chariots, and swords, Psal. A similar mode of speech occurs in the Iliad, where Ilomer repeatedly calls Menelaus and Agamemnon the sons of Atreus, though they were in reality the children of his son Plisthenes, and, consequently, the grandchildren of Atreus. In consequence of their father's death, while they were very young, they were educated by their grandfather; who, from his attention to them, was universally acknowledged their protector and father. Hence arose their appellation of Atridæ, or sons of Atreus. • Diog. Laert. lib. i. cap. 10. § 11. tom. i. p. 123. edit. Longolii. xlvi. 9.; Lam. v. 9. Ezek. xxi. 3, 4.; Matt. x. 34. So, to lift up the hand is sometimes to swear, Gen. xiv. 22.; Deut. xxxii. 40., and sometimes to pray, Lam. iii. 41.; 1 Tim. ii. 8. In like manner, to stretch forth the hand is to call for audience, Peal, xliv. 20.; Prov. i. 24. To kiss the hand, or to kiss another, is to yield reverence, Job xxxi. 27.; 1 Sam. x. 1.; Psal. ii. 12.; 1 Kings xix. 18.; Hos. xiii. 2. To bow the knee is to worship, Isai. xlv. 23.; Eph. iii. 14.; Phil. ii. 10. To give the hand, or to strike hands, is to swear, join in fellowship, engage, or become surety for another, Job xvii. 3.; Prov. vi. 1.; Ezek. xvii. 18.; Gal. ii. 9. To put on sackcloth is to mourn, Psal. Ixix. 11. To beat swords into plough-shares, and spears into pruning-hooks is to live in peace and security, Isai. ii. 4. XVIII. Lastly, the names of things are often put for the things them selves. Thus, the name of God denotes the Almighty himself, Psal. xx. 1., cxv. 1.; Prov. xviii. 10.; Isai. xxx. 27.; Jer. x. 25.; Joel ii. 32.; Acts ii. 21.; and Rom. x. 13. Names are likewise put for persons, Acts i. 15.; Rev. iii. 4., and xi. 13. (Gr.). In like manner we find that names are given to persons to express their state or condition, although they are not ordinarily called by such names, as in Isai. i. 26., Thou shalt be called the city of righteousness or justice, that is, thou shalt be so. Similar expressions occur in Isai, lxii, 4.. and Jer. iii. 17. SECTION III ON THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE METAPHORS. Nature of a metaphor.— Sources of Scripture metaphors.-I. The works of nature. II. The occupations, customs, and arts of life. - III. Sacred topics, or religion and things connected with it.—IV. Sacred history. A METAPHOR is a trope, by which a word is diverted from its proper and genuine signification to another meaning, for the sake of comparison, or because there is some analogy between the similitude and the thing signified. Of all the figures of rhetoric, the metaphor is that which is most frequently employed, not only in the Scriptures, but likewise in every language; for, independently of the pleasure which it affords, it enriches the mind with two ideas at the same time, the truth and the similitude. In order to understand metaphors aright, it should be observed that the foundation of them consists in a likeness or similitude between the thing from which the metaphor is drawn, and that to which it is applied. When this resemblance is exhibited in one or in a few expressions, it is termed a single metaphor. When it is pursued with a variety of expressions, or there is a continued assemblage of metaphors, it is [though improperly] called an allegory. When it is couched in a short sentence, obscure and ambiguous, it is called a riddle. If it be conveyed in a short saying only, it is a proverb; and, if the metaphorical representation be delivered in the form of a history, it is a parable.' When the resemblance is far-fetched, as to see a voice (Rev. i. 12.), it is termed a catachresis. This last-mentioned species of figure, however, is of less frequent occurrence in the Scriptures than any of the preceding. The various sources, whence the sacred writers have drawn their metaphors, have been discussed at great length by Bishop Lowth, 1 See below, p. 344., note 4. 2 In his lectures on Hebrew Poetry, lect. vi.-ix. and his annotator Michaelis, and also by Glassius'; from whose elaborate works the following observations are abridged. The sources of Scripture metaphors may be classed under the four following heads, viz. natural, artificial, sacred, and historical. I. The works of nature furnish the first and most copious, as well as the most pleasing, source of images in the sacred writings. Thus the images of light and darkness are commonly made use of, in all languages, to denote prosperity and adversity; and an uncommon degree of light implies a proportionate degree of joy and prosperity, and vice versâ, Isai. xiii. 10., xxx. 26., lix. 9., lx. 19, 20.; Jer. xv. 9.; Amos viii. 9.; Micah iii. 6.; Joel ii. 10. The same metaphors are also used to denote knowledge and ignorance, Isai. viii. 20., ix. 2.; Matt. iv. 16.; Eph. v. 8. The sun, moon, and stars figuratively represent kings, queens, and princes or rulers, as in Isai. xxiv. 23.; Ezek. xxxii. 7. Nothing is more grateful to the inhabitants of the East than springs, rivers, and rain; for, as showers rarely fall in their countries, the grass and flowers of the field become consumed by the intolerable heat, unless watered in some way or other. Hence, flowing springs, copious showers, and nightly dews, which fertilize the fields, furnish them with a variety of pleasing images, Isai. xxxv. 1, 6, 7., and xli. 18. The blessings of the gospel are delineated under the metaphors of dew, Isai. xxvi. 19., moderate rains, Hos. vi. 3., gentle streams and running waters, Isai. xxvii. 3. and xliv. 3. On the other hand, no metaphor is more frequent than that by which sudden and great calamities are expressed under the figure of a deluge of waters. With this metaphor the Hebrews appear to have been extremely familiar, as if it were directly taken from the nature and state of their country. Immediately before their eyes was the river Jordan, which annually overflowed its banks2; for, the snows of Lebanon and the neighbouring mountains being melted in the beginning of summer, the waters of the river were often suddenly augmented by the descending torrents. The whole country, also, being mountainous, was exposed to frequent floods after the great periodical tempests of rain. To this David alludes, Psal. xlii. 7. Immoderate rains, hail, floods, inundations, and torrents, denote judgments and destruction, Isai. viii. 7.; Jer. xlvii. 2. ; Ezek. xxxviii. 22. To the class of metaphors derived from natural objects we may refer the anthropopathy, a metaphor by which things belonging to creatures, and especially to man, are ascribed to God, and the prosopopaia, or personification, that is, the change of things to persons. Both these figures are nearly allied to the metaphor, and still more to the metonymy; but they are noticed in this place, as being upon the whole the most convenient arrangement. 1. In the consideration of anthropopathies, the two following important rules must be constantly kept in mind; viz. [i.] That we understand them in a way and manner suitable to the nature and majesty of the Almighty, refining them from all that imperfection with which they are debased in the creatures, and so attribute them to the Deity. Thus, when the members of a human body are ascribed to God, we must understand those perfections, of which such members in us are he instruments. The eye, for instance, 1 Philologia Sacra, lib. ii. pp. 916-1243. edit. Dathii 2 Josh. iii. 15.; 1 Chron. xii. 15; Ecclus. xxiv. 26. being that member by which we discern or observe any thing, is employed to denote God's perfect and exact knowledge of all things, Job xxxiv. 21.; Psal. xi. 4.; and Heb. iv. 13.: as also his watchful providence, Deut. xi. 12.; 1 Kings ix. 3.; Psal. xxxiv. 15. In like manner, ears are attributed to him, to signify his gracious acceptance of his people's prayers, Psal. xxxi. 2., or the exact notice which he takes of the sins of others, James v. 4. By his arm we are to understand his power and strength, Exod. xv. 16., which is also expressed by his right hand, Exod. xv. 6., and Psal. cxviii. 15, 16. So, his work is expressed by his fingers, Exod. viii. 19.; and Psal. viii. 3.; and his love and compassion by his bowels, Isai. lxiii. 15.; Jer. xxxi. 20.; Luke i. 78., through the bowels of the mercy of our God (dià σTλάyxvα), whereby the day-spring from on high hath visited us. There are a thousand similar instances in the Scriptures. [ii.] Further, when human affections are attributed to Jehovah, we must be careful not to interpret them in a manner that shall imply the least imperfection in him, but must thereby conceive, (1.) Either a pure act of his will, free from all perturbation to which men are liable, or else, (2.) The effect of such human affections, the antecedent being put for the consequent, that is, one thing being expressed while another thing is understood, which is usually its effect, or at least follows it—a figure of very frequent occurrence in the sacred writings. Thus, when God is said to repent, we are not to imagine any change of mind in him with whom there is no variableness or shadow of turning, or any sorrow or trouble that is inconsistent with his perfect happiness; but, either his purpose to undo what he has done, or desist from what he is doing, which are the ordinary effects of repentance in man: so that the change is not in the disposition of the Supreme Mind, but in the dispensations of his providence; as in Gen. vi. 6.; 1 Sam. xv. 11, 35.; 2 Sam. xxiv. 16.; Psal. cvi. 45. Again, God is said in very many passages to be angry, to have fury, &c, to make us apprehend how much he hates sin, and will punish sinners. The same remark will apply to other affections which are attributed to him. In a similar manner are we to understand all those passages in which human actions are ascribed to God, as in Gen. xviii. 21.; where, as men have to examine to become acquainted with a thing, God is said to go down and see what was done in Sodom, in order that he might know. To search the heart and try the reins is to discern exactly, as in Psal. vii. 9.; and Jer. xvii. 10. Lastly, human relations are likewise ascribed to God, to express the properties of such relations: thus, he is called a King, Psal. xcv. 3., a Father, Psal. ciii. 13.; Rom. viii. 15., a Husband, Isai. liv. 5.; Hosea ii. 19., a Shepherd, Psal. xxiii. 1., to express his power and authority, his love, pity, tender care, and watchful providence. 2. Of the prosopopaia, or personification, there are two kinds; one, when actions and character are attributed to irrational, or even inanimate objects; the other, when a probable but fictitious speech is assigned to a real character: [i.] The former, Bishop Lowth remarks, evidently partakes of the nature of the metaphor, and is by far the boldest of that class of figures: it is most frequently and successfully introduced by the sacred writers. In Psal. lxxxv. 10., how admirable is the personification of the divine attributes! Righteousness and peace have kissed each other. How just, elegant, and splendid does it appear, if applied only (according to the literal sense) to the restoration of the Jewish nation from the Babylonish captivity! But, if we consider it in a most sacred and mystical sense, which is not obscurely shadowed under the ostensible image, viz. that of the method of redemption by the sacrifice and mediation of Jesus Christ, in which the divine perfections were so harmoniously displayed, it is beyond measure grand and elevated. Again, what can be more sublime or graceful than the personification of wisdom, so frequently introduced in the Proverbs of Solomon, particularly in chapter viii. verses 22-31.? She is exhibited not only as the directress of human life and morals, as the inventress of arts, as the dispenser of honours and riches, as the source of true felicity, but also as the eternal daughter of the omnipotent Creator, and as the eternal associate in the divine counsels. Similar passages, exquisitely imagined, and from the boldness of the fiction extremely forcible, occur in Job xviii. 13., xxviii. 22.; Isai. v. 14., xlvii. 1, 5.; Lam. i. 1, 6, 17.; Hos. xiii. 14.; and 1 Cor. xv. 54.1 [ii] The second kind of prosopopoeia, by which a probable but fictitious speech is assigned to a real person, though less calculated to excite admiration and approbation by its novelty, boldness, and variety, than the former, is nevertheless possessed of great force, evidence, and authority. It would, as Bishop Lowth remarks, be an infinite task to specify every instance in the sacred poems, which on this occasion might be referred to as worthy of notice. A reference to one example, therefore, must suffice; one more perfect it is not possible to produce. It is expressive of the eager expectation of the mother of Sisera, from the inimitable ode of the prophetess Deborah (Judg. v. 28-30.). The first sentences exhibit a striking picture of maternal solicitude, both in words and actions; and of a mind suspended and agitated between hope and fear (v. 28.). Immediately, impatient of his delay, she anticipates the consolations of her friends; and, her mind being somewhat elevated, she boasts with all the levity of a fond female (vv. 29, 30.). Let us next observe how well adapted every sentiment, every word, is to the character of the speaker. She takes no account of the slaughter of the enemy, of the valour and conduct of the conqueror, of the multitude of the captives, but Burns with a female thirst of prey and spoils. Nothing is omitted which is calculated to attract and engage the passions of a vain and trifling woman slaves, gold, and rich apparel. Nor is she satisfied with the bare enumeration of them; she repeats, she amplifies, she heightens every circumstance; she seems to have the very plunder in her immediate possession; she pauses and contemplates every particular (v. 30). To add to the beauty of this passage, there is also an uncommon neatness in the versification, great force, accuracy, and perspicuity in the diction, the utmost elegance in the repetitions, which, notwithstanding their apparent redundancy, are conducted with the most perfect brevity. In the end, the fatal disappointment of female hope and credulity, tacitly insinuated by the sudden and unexpected apostrophe, So let all thine enemies perish, O Jehovah ! is expressed more forcibly by this very silence of the person who was just speaking, than it could possibly have been by all the powers of language. But whoever wishes to understand the full force and excellence of this figure, as well as the elegant use of it in the Hebrew ode, must apply to Isaiah, whom we may justly pronounce to be the sublimest of poets. Bishop Lowth considers his fourteenth chapter as the grandest specimen of that prophet's poetry, and as exemplifying almost every form of the prosopopoeia, and indeed of all that constitutes the sublime in composition. II. The Hebrews derived many of their figures from the ordinary occupations and customs of life, as well as from such arts as were practised at that time. This source, indeed, is common to all nations; and, in proportion as they are more polished, and cultivate more numerous arts, they are supplied with a greater variety of images. The whole course and method of common and domestic life among the ancient Hebrews was simple in the highest degree. There did not exist that variety of studies and pursuits, of arts, conditions, and employments, which afterwards obtained among other nations. The Hebrews were a nation of husbandmen and shepherds: the patriarchs were possessed of great flocks and herds which they tended; though their descendants afterwards applied themselves to agriculture. 'The late Mr. Gilpin has pointed out many very striking personifications and other metaphorical allusions used by St. Paul. See his Sermons, vol. iv. p. 405., &c. |