7. Nature and Powers.-School districts are public quasi municipal corporations, 18 sometimes termed "involuntary corporations.” 19 They have perpetual succession,20 and may sue or be sued even in the absence of a statute authorizing such actions. They may make contracts, levy taxes, and possess property. They are organized not for the purpose of profit or gain, but solely for the public benefit, 687, 3 L.R.A. 46; Edmondson v. Board of Education, 108 Tenn. 557, 69 S. W. 274, 58 L.R.A. 170. 1 cation, 65 W. Va. 765, 65 S. E. 102, 31 L.R.A. (N.S.) 588. Notes: 51 A. S. R. 120; 17 Ann. Cas. 511. 19. Freel v. Crawfordsville School City, 142 Ind. 27, 41 N. E. 312, 37 L.R.A. 301; Daniels v. Board of Education, 191 Mich. 339, 158 N. W. 23, L.R.A.1916F 468. 20. Connell v. Woodard, 5 How. (Miss.) 665, 37 Am. Dec. 173. 1. School Dist. No. 56 v. St. Joseph, etc., Ins. Co., 103 U. S. 707, 26 U. S. (L. ed.) 601; McLoud v. Selby, 10 Conn. 390, 27 Am. Dec. 689; Daniels v. Board of Education, 191 Mich. 339, 158 N. W. 23, L.R.A.1916F 468; Connell v. Woodard, 5 How. (Miss.) 665, 37 Am. Dec. 173; Frans v. Young, 30 Neb. 360, 46 N. W. 528, 27 A. S. R. 412; Finch v. Board of Education, 30 Ohio St. 37, 27 Am. Rep. 414; School Dist. No. 21 v. Fremont County, 15 Wvo. 73, 86 Pac. 24, 11 Ann. Cas. 1058. Note: Ann. Cas. 1913E 1331. 18. School Dist. No. 56 V. St. Joseph, etc., Ins. Co., 103 U. S. 707, 26 U. S. (L. ed.) 601; Doon Tp. v. Cummins, 142 U. S. 366, 12 S. Ct. 220, 35 U. S. (L. ed.) 1044; Board of Education v. DeKay, 148 U. S. 591, 13 S. Ct. 706, 37 U. S. (L. ed.) 573; Pass School Dist. v. Hollywood City School Dist., 156 Cal. 416, 105 Pac. 122, 20 Ann. Cas. 87, 26 L.R.A.(N.S.) 485; Pasadena School Dist. v. Pasadena, 166 Cal. 7, 134 Pac. 985, Ann. Cas. 1915B 1039, 47 L.R.A. (N.S.) 892; Hassett v. Carroll, 85 Conn. 23, 81 Atl. 1013, Ann. Cas. 1913A 333; People v. Board of Education, 101 Ill. 308, 40 Am. Rep. 196; Monticello School Town v. Kendall, 72 Ind. 91, 37 Am. Rep. 139; Andrews v. Estes, 11 Me. 267, 26 Am. Dec. 521; Gaskill v. Dudley, 6 Metc. (Mass.) 546, 39 Am. Dec. 750; Hill v. Boston, 122 Mass. 344, 23 Am. Rep. 332; Marathon Tp. School Dist. No. 4 v. Gage, 39 Mich. 484, 33 Am. Rep. 421; Connell v. Woodard, 5 How. (Miss.) 665, 37 Am. Dec. 173; Frans v. Young, 30 Neb. 360, 46 N. W. 528, 27 A. S. R. 412; Smith v. Robersonville Graded School, 141 N. C. 143, 53 S. E. 524, 8 Ann. Cas. 529; Finch v. Board of Education, 30 Ohio St. 37, 27 Am. Rep. 414; Pittsburg V. Sterrett Subdistrict School, 204 Pa. St. 635, 54 Atl. 463. 61 L.R.A. 183: Crabb v. Celeste School Dist., 105 Te. 194, 146 S. W. 528, Ann. Cas. 1915B 1146, 39 L.R.A. (N.S.) 601; Howard V. Tacoma School Dist., 88 Wash. 167, 152 Pac. 6. Atty.-Gen. v. Lowrey, 199 U. S. 1004, Ann. Cas. 1917D 792; Honaker 233, 26 S. Ct. 27, 50 U. S. (L. ed.) v. Board of Education, 42 W. Va. 170, 167; Pearson v. State, 56 Ark. 148, 19 24 S. E. 544, 57 A. S. R. 847, 32 S. W. 499, 35 A. S. R. 91; Freel v. L.R.A. 413; Herald v. Board of Edu- Crawfordsville School City, 142 Ind. 2. MeLoud v. Selby, 10 Conn. 390, 27 Am. Dec. 689. 3. McLoud v. Selby, 10 Conn. 390, 27 Am. Dec. 689; Hill v. Boston, 122 Mass. 344, 23 Am. Rep. 332; Finch v. Board of Education, 30 Ohio St. 37, 27 Am. Rep. 414. 4. McLoud v. Selby, 10 Conn. 390, 27 Am. Dec. 689. 5. School Dist. No. 56 v. St. Joseph, etc., Ins. Co., 103 U. S. 707, 26 U. S. (L. ed) 601; McLoud v. Selby, 10 Conn. 390. 27 Am. Dec. 689; Hill v. Boston, 122 Mass. 344, 23 Am. Rep. 332; Daniels v. Board of Education, 191 Mich. 339, 158 N. W. 23, L.R.A. 1916F 468. and have only such limited powers as may be necessary for that purpose. They have therefore been said to be corporations of the most limited power known to the law. They are but the agents of the state for the sole purpose of administering the state system of public education, and have only such powers as are conferred expressly or by necessary implication.10 All who deal with them are charged with notice of the scope of their authority." Where a municipal corporation and a school district embrace the same territory, the latter in erecting a schoolhouse must comply with the building regulations of the municipality.12 8. De Facto Districts.-The acts of a de facto school district, one operating under color of right, are valid.18 If a school district has 27, 41 N. E. 312, 37 L.R.A. 301; Hill v. Boston, 122 Mass. 344, 23 Am. Rep. 332; Finch v. Board of Education, 30 Ohio St. 37, 27 Am. Rep. 414; Pittsburg v. Sterrett Subdistrict School, 204 Pa. St. 635, 54 Atl. 463, 61 L.R.A. 183; Honaker v. Board of Education, 42 W. Va. 170, 24 S. E. 544, 57 A. S. R. 847, 32 L.R.A. 413; Herald v. Board of Education, 65 W. Va. 765, 65 S. E. 102, 31 L.R.A. (N.S.) 588. 7. Pearson v. State, 56 Ark. 148, 19 S. W. 499, 35 A. S. R. 91; Hassett v. Carroll, 85 Conn. 23, 81 Atl. 1013, Ann. Cas. 1913A 333; People v. Board of Education, 101 Ill. 308, 40 Am. Rep. 196; Freel v. Crawfordsville School City, 142 Ind. 27, 41 N. E. 312, 37 L.R.A. 301; Kuhn v. Board of Education, 175 Mich. 438, 141 N. W. 574, 45 L.R.A. (N.S.) 972; Honaker v. Board of Education, 42 W. Va. 170, 24 S. E. 544, 57 A. S. R. 847, 32 L.R.A. 413; Herald v. Board of Education, 65 W. Va. 765, 65 S. E. 102, 31 L.R.A. (N.S.) 588; Hunt v. Norwich School Dist. No. 20, 14 Vt. 300, 39 Am. Dec. 225. 8. Pasadena School Dist. v. Pasadena, 166 Cal. 7, 134 Pac. 985, Ann. Cas. 1915B 1039, 47 L.R.A. (N.S.) 892. (N.S.) 972; Pittsburg v. Sterrett Subdistrict School, 204 Pa. St. 635, 54 Atl. 463, 61 L.R.A. 183; Howard v. Tacoma School Dist., 88 Wash. 167, 152 Pac. 1004, Ann. Cas. 1917D 792. 10. Hassett v. Carroll, 85 Conn. 23, 81 Atl. 1013, Ann. Cas. 1913A 333; Kuhn v. Board of Education, 175 Mich. 438, 141 N. W. 574, 45 L.R.A. (N.S.) 972; Crawford v. Klamath County School Dist. No. 7, 68 Ore. 388, 137 Pac. 217, Ann. Cas. 1915C 477, 50 L.R.A. (N.S.) 147; Honaker v. Board of Education, 42 W. Va. 170, 24 S. E. 544, 57 A. S. R. 847, 32 L.R.A. 413; Herald v. Board of Education, 65 W. Va. 765, 65 S. E. 102, 31 L.R.A. (N.S.) 588. 11. Fresno Nat. Bank v. Hawkins, 93 Cal. 551, 29 Pac. 233, 27 A. S. R. 221; Gibbs v. School Dist. No. 10, 88 Mich. 334, 50 N. W. 294, 26 A. S. R. 295; State v. School Dist. No. 50, 18 N. D. 616, 120 N. W. 555, 138 A. S. R. 787; Superior Mfg. Co. v. School Dist. No. 63, 28 Okla. 293, 114 Pac. 328, 37 L.R.A. (N.S.) 1054; Honaker v. Board of Education, 42 W. Va. 170, 24 S. E. 544, 57 A. S. R. 847, 32 L.R.A. 413; McGillivary v. Joint School Dist., 112 Wis. 354, 88 N. W. 310, 88 A. S. R. 969, 58 L.R.A. 100. Note: 45 L.R.A. (N.S.) 972. 12. Pasadena School Dist. v. Pasadena, 166 Cal. 7, 134 Pac. 985, Ann. Cas. 1915B 1039, 47 L.R.A. (N.S.) 892 and note. 9. Atty.-Gen. v. Lowrey, 199 U. S. 233, 26 S. Ct. 27, 50 U. S. (L. ed.) 167; Pearson v. State, 56 Ark. 148, 19 S. W. 499, 35 A. S. R. 91; Freel v. Crawfordsville School City, 142 Ind. 27, 41 N. E. 312, 37 L.R.A. 301; Kuhn v. Board of Education, 175 13. Reynolds v. Moore, 9 Wend. Mich. 438, 141 N. W. 574, 45 L.R.A. (N. Y.) 35, 24 Am. Dec. 116; Coler v. been formed under color of law its legality can only be determined by a suit brought for that purpose in the name of the state, or by some one under the authority of the state, who has a special interest affected by the existence of such corporation, and the fact that the complainant is a taxpayer is not sufficient.14 It is generally stated that the legality of the formation of a school district can be determined only in a direct proceeding and cannot be questioned collaterally.15 9. Change of Boundaries.-The boundaries of school districts may be changed at the will of the legislature, 16 and the constitutions and statutes very commonly provide for such change on petition of the residents, citizens or voters thereof.17 In some cases the power to create and change the boundaries is vested by the legislature in local boards or officers.18 In such case the discretion of the board is broad, and the courts will not interfere with its exercise except in cases of clear abuse thereof, and the acquiescence of the complainant in the change constitutes a ground for the refusal of equitable interference.19 Where proceedings have been regularly carried through changing the boundaries of a school district, and the local board in effecting the change by mistake includes in the new boundaries land properly belonging to another district, the action as to that land is a mere nullity.20 10. Effect of Change on Property and Debts.-The legislature, having plenary power over school districts, may provide for the division of the property and the apportionment of debts, when a portion of the territory and property of one district is transferred to the jurisdiction of another; 1 but, in the absence of such provision, the rule Dwight School Tp., 3 N. Dak. 249, 55 N. W. 587, 28 L.R.A. 649. 14. Crabb v. Celeste Independent School Dist., 105 Tex. 194, 146 S. W. 528, Ann. Cas. 1915B 1146, 39 L.R.A. (N.S.) 601. 15. School Dist. No. 116 v. Wolf, 78 Kan. 805, 98 Pac. 237, 20 L.R.A. (N.S.) 358; Reynolds v. Moore, 9 Wend. (N. Y.) 35, 24 Am. Dec. 116; Coler v. Dwight School Tp., 3 N. D. 249, 55 N. W. 587, 28 L.R.A. 649; School Dist. No. 21 v. Fremont County, 15 Wyo. 73, 86 Pac. 24, 11 Ann. Cas. 1058 and note. 16. Atty.-Gen. v. Lowrey, 199 U. S. 233, 26 S. Ct. 27, 50 U. S. (L. ed.) 167; Pearson v. State, 56 Ark. 148, 19 S. W. 499, 35 A. S. R. 91; Pass School Dist. v. Hollywood City School Dist., 156 Cal. 416, 105 Pac. 122, 20 Ann. Cas. 87, 26 L.R.A. (N.S.) 485; Winona v. School Dist. No. 82, 40 Minn. 13, 41 N. W. 539, 12 A. S. R. 687, 3 L.R.A. 46; Edmondson v. Board of Education, 108 Tenn. 557, 69 S. W. 274, 58 L.R.A. 170. 17. Oppegaard v. Renville County, 120 Minn. 443, 139 N. W. 949, 43 L.R.A. (N.S.) 936. 18. Atchison Board of Education v. DeKay, 148 U. S. 591, 13 S. Ct. 706, 37 U. S. (L. ed.) 573; Metz v. Anderson, 23 Ill. 463, 76 Am. Dec. 704. Note: Ann. Cas. 1913B 171. 19. Metz v. Anderson, 23 Ill. 463, 76 Am. Dec. 704. 20. Oppegaard v. Renville County, 120 Minn. 443, 139 N. W. 949, 43 L.R.A. (N.S.) 936. 1. Atty.-Gen. v. Lowrey, 199 U. S. 233, 26 S. Ct. 27, 50 U. S. (L. ed.) 167; Pass School Dist. v. Hollywood City School Dist. 156 Cal. 416, 105 Pac. 122, 20 Ann. Cas. 87, 26 L.R.A. (N.S.) 485; Winona v. Winona County of the common law obtains, and that rule leaves the property where it is found, and the debt on the original debtor. A statute effecting such separation does not deprive the school district of its property 'without due process of law, for it holds such property merely as trustee for the state, and there is no contract relation between the district and the state. In a few jurisdictions, however, the rule obtains that in case of the alteration of the lines of a school district so that the school property is left within the limits of another district, the right to the property remains in the old district," on the ground that annexation of territory to a district merely gives it control over it and not title to the land. In some jurisdictions express statutory provision is made for the adjustment of property rights where the boundaries of a school district are altered. The provisions of these statutes vary greatly. Some statutes provide that a new district assuming the property of an old district shall assume its debts as well. In case of the abolition of the old district and the formation of new districts out of its territory the new districts are deemed the successors of the old and as such liable for all of its debts and entitled to all of its property." 11. Qualifications of Electors.-Usually the qualifications of electors are prescribed by the constitutions of the several states. 10 Many state constitutions have expressly extended the suffrage to women in school matters,1 11 but under general provisions, questions of some difficulty at times arise. Constitutional provisions fixing the qualifications of School Dist. No. 82, 40 Minn. 13, 41 2. Pass School Dist. v. Hollywood City School Dist., 156 Cal. 416, 105 Pac. 122, 20 Ann. Cas. 87 and note, 26 L.R.A. (N.S.) 485 and note. 3. Atty.-Gen. v. Lowrey, 199 U. S. 233, 26 S. Ct. 27, 50 U. S. (L. ed.) 167; Pass School Dist. v. Hollywood City School Dist., 156 Cal. 416, 105 Pac. 122, 20 Ann. Cas. 87, 26 L.R.A. (N.S.) 485. 4. Atty.-Gen. v. Lowrey, 199 U. S. 233, 26 S. Ct. 27, 50 U. S. (L. ed.) 167. 5. Winona v. Winona County School Dist. No. 82, 40 Minn. 13, 41 N. W. 539, 12 A. S. R. 687, 3 L.R.A. 46. Notes: 26 L.R.A. (N.S.) 487; 20 Ann. Cas. 89. 6. Winona v. Winona County School Dist. No. 82, 40 Minn. 13, 41 N. W. 539, 12 A. S. R. 687, 3 L.R.A. 46. 7. Atty.-Gen. v. Lowrey, 199 U. S. 233, 26 S. Ct. 27, 50 U. S. (L. ed.) 167. Note: 20 Ann. Cas. 90. 8. Atty.-Gen. v. Lowrey, 199 U. S. 233, 26 S. Ct. 27, 50 U. S. (L. ed.) 167; Coler v. Dwight School Tp., 3 N. D. 249. 55 N. W. 587, 28 L.R.A. 649. 9. District of Columbia v. Cluss, 103 U. S. 705, 26 U. S. (L. ed.) 455; Winona v. Winona County School Dist. No. 82, 40 Minn. 13, 41 N. W. 539, 12 A. S. R. 687, 3 L.R.A. 46. 10. Oppegaard v. Renville County, 120 Minn. 443, 139 N. W. 949, 43 L.R.A. (N.S.) 936; Harris v. Burr, 32 Ore. 348, 52 Pac. 17, 39 L.R.A. 768. See also ELECTIONS, vol. 9, p. 1023 et seq. 11. Oppegaard v. Renville County, 120 Minn. 443, 139 N. W. 949, 43 L.R.A. (N.S.) 936. As to the recent extension of the right of suffrage to women on equal terms with men, see ELECTIONS, Vol. 9, pp. 1028-1029. electors at "all elections" or at "any election" apply only to the election of officers provided for by the constitution, and where the constitution does not provide for school officers but leaves the subject. of schools to the legislature it is competent for the legislature to prescribe the qualifications of voters at school elections. 18 This fact has frequently been taken advantage of by the legislature to give the vote to women in school matters, although they are not given the general franchise by the constitution. But where the constitution in general terms limits the suffrage for all offices to males, the legislature cannot enfranchise women in school matters, even though school offices are not constitutional, but rather legislative offices.15 In many constitutions school officers are not specifically named, but the question arises whether they are included under any general headings. The term which has come up most frequently for judicial determination in this connection is "town and county officers." It is generally held that these terms do not include officers of a district, but do include higher officers whose powers extend over several districts, 16 17 12. Proceedings on Petition.-Many state constitutions provide for the filing of petitions in certain school matters by citizens, using the words "qualified voters," "legal voters" or some similar phraseology.1 In such cases the question has arisen as to whether women are to be included in determining what constitutes the fixed proportion required by the constitutions. In those states in which women have no right to vote at all, plainly they are not to be included, and similarly where the suffrage of women is restricted to school matters, it has been held that they are not included in such provisions, not being voters in the broad sense.18 Such provisions contemplate the signing of the petition by the voters in person and an attorney at law cannot sign for a number of persons whom he represents.19 III. SCHOOL OFFICERS 13. Source and Extent of Power.-The affairs of school districts are usually intrusted to officers generally known as "directors" or "trus 12. In re Gage, 141 N. Y. 112, 35 N. E. 1094, 25 L.R.A. 781; Harris v. Burr, 32 Ore. 348, 52 Pac. 17, 39 L.R.A. 768. Note: 7 Ann. Cas. 666. 16. In re Gage, 141 N. Y. 112, 35 N. E. 1094, 25 L.R.A. 781. 17. De Loach v. Newton, 134 Ga. 739, 68 S. E. 708, 20 Ann. Cas. 342; Oppegaard v. Renville County, 120 13. Harris v. Burr, 32 Ore. 348, 52 Minn. 443, 139 N. W. 949, 43 L.R.A. Pac. 17, 39 L.R.A. 768. Note: 7 Ann. Cas. 666. (N.S.) 936. 18. Oppegaard v. Renville County, 14. Harris v. Burr, 32 Ore. 348, 52 120 Minn. 443, 139 N. W. 949, 43 Pac. 17, 39 L.R.A. 768. Note: 7 Ann. Cas. 666. 15. Note: 7 Ann. Cas. 666. L.R.A. (N.S.) 936. 19. De Loach v. Newton, 134 Ga. 739, 68 S. E. 708, 20 Ann. Cas. 342. |