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The beginning or initial point for the surveys within a given surveying district having been determined upon, a principal base line (see diagram, line A B,) is surveyed on a true parallel of latitude east and west therefrom. The principal meridian (see diagram, line CD,) is extended due north and south of the same point. The law requires that the meridional lines shall be run on the true meridian; therefore, in order to counteract the error that would otherwise result from the convergency of meridians as they run to the north pole, and also to check errors arising from inaccuracies in measurements on meridian lines, standard parallels or correction lines (see diagram, lines E F and G H,) are run and marked at every four townships, or twenty-four miles, north of the base, and at every five townships, or thirty miles, south of the same. Guide meridians (see diagram, line I K,) are next surveyed at intervals of eight ranges, or forty-eight miles, east and west of the principal meridian, starting north of the base, in the first instance, from that line, and closing on the first standard north; then starting from the first standard, and closing on the second standard north, and so on. South of the base line the guide meridians start from the first standard south and close on the base line; then starting from the second standard and closing on the first standard, and, again, starting from the third standard and closing on the second, and so on. The closing corners on the base line and standard parallels are established at the intersection of the meridional lines therewith, thus, owing to the convergency of meridians, occasioning a double set of corners on those lines, which are designated as "standard corners" and "closing comers." In rugged mountain regions it has been found necessary to depart somewhat from the regular system of extending the standard lines, owing to the impracticability of surveying them in place. Under these circumstances, the principal lines are run and marked in localities admitting of the extension, by means of offsets on township lines, marking them as such in the field.

The parallelograms formed by the base line, principal meridian, standard parallels, and guide meridians, twenty-four by forty-eight miles in extent, north of the base line, and thirty by forty-eight miles south of the base, constitute the frame-work of the rectangular system of surveys.

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These parallelograms are each subdivided into townships six miles square, containing, as near as may be, 23,040 acres, and again each township is subdivided into thirty-six sections one mile square, containing, as near as practicable, 640 acres each. The sections of one mile square are the smallest tracts the out-boundaries of which the law requires to be actually sur, veyed. Their minor subdivisions are defined by law, and the surveyors-general, in protracting township plats from the field-notes of sections, designate them in red ink, the lines being imaginary, connecting opposite quarter-section corners, thereby dividing the section into four quarter-sections of 160 acres, and these, in their turn, into quarter-quarter sections of 40 acres cach, by imaginary lines starting from points equidistant between the section and quartersection corners, and running to opposite corresponding points. These imaginary lines may at any time be actually surveyed by the county surveyor at the expense of the settler. The sections in each township are numbered, beginning in the north-east corner, 36 inclusive, as shown in the township plat on the next page. Sections 16 and 36 are called school sections, and if agricultural belong to the State or are reserved in a Territory, for school

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purposes. They can only be bought at the State Land Office, unless they contain minerals o were settled upon prior to survey, when they are sold at the United States Land Office. The sections on the northern and western boundaries of a township are fractional, i, e., they do not contain exactly 640 acres. The small fragments are called Lots, and are numbered from

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in range 2 west of the Principal Meridian. Hence the township in the extreme northeast corner of the Diagram is Township 5 North of Range 8 East. The Principal Meridian is named, if otherwise there is a possibility of mistake. The 40-acre tract in the extreme southwest corner of school section 16 in the same township would be described thus: The southwest quarter of the south-west quarter of section 16, in Township 5 north, of Range 8 East (Mount Diablo Meridian, California). In figures, it would be written S. W. 4, S.W. 4, Sec. 16, T. 5 N., R. 8 E., M. D. M. Where would you find the following tract? N. E. 4, S. E. 4, Sec. 1, T. 2 S, R. 6 E.—Ans. It is marked on the Diagram with an X, and on the Township plat with a square.

HOW TO TELL CORNERS,

The following extracts from the Manual of Surveying Instructions illustrate the manner of establishing the corners of the public surveys:

MANNER OF ESTABLISHING CORNERS BY MEANS OF POSTS.

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Township, sectional or mile corners, and quarter sectional or half mile corners, will be perpetuated by planting a post at the place of the corner, to be formed of the most durable wood of the forest at hand.

The posts must be set in the earth by digging a hole to admit them two feet deep, and must be very securely rammed in with earth, and also with stone, if any be found at hand. The portion of the post which extends above the earth must be squared off sufficiently smooth to admit of receiving the marks thereon, to be made with appropriate marking irons, indicating what it stands for. Thus the sides of township corner posts should square at least four inches, (the post itself being five inches in diameter,) and must protrude two feet at least, above the ground; the sides of section corner posts must square at least three inches, (the post itself being four inches in diameter,) and protrude two feet from the ground; and the quarter section corner posts and meander corner posts must be three inches wide, presenting flattened surfaces, and protruding two feet from the ground.

DIAGRAM

Illustrating the frame-work of Public Surveys in the United States.

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Where a township post is a corner common to four townships, it is to be set in the ea diagonally, thus:

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Section or mile-posts, being corners of sections, and where such are common to four se tions, are to be set diagonally in the earth (in the manner provided for township corner post and on each side of the squared surfaces (made smooth, as aforesaid, to receive the mark is to be marked the appropriate number of the particular one of the four sections, respe vely, which such side faces; also, on one side thereof are to be marked the numbers of township and range; and to make such marks yet more conspicuous in manner aforesaid, a streak of red chalk is to be applied.

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six notches on each of the four angles of the squared part set to the cardinal points. All mile posts on township lines must have as many notches on them, on two opposite angh thereof, as they are miles distant from the township corners, respectively. Each of the posts at the corners of sections in the interior of a township must indicate, by a number of notches on each of its four corners directed to the cardinal points, the corresponding number of miles that it stands from the outlines of the township("). The four sides of the post will indicate the number of the section they respectively face. Should a tree be found at the place of an

(*) Only on two edges in surveys made since 1864. See page 25.

corner, it will be marked and notched as aforesaid, and answer for the corner in lieu of a post, the kind of tree and its diameter being given in the field-notes.

BEARING TREES.

The position of all corner posts, or corner trees, of whatever description that may be established, is to be evidenced in the following manner, viz: From such post or tree the course must be taken and the distances measured to two or more adjacent trees in opposite directions, as nearly as may be, and these are called "bearing trees." Such are to be distinguished by a large smooth blaze, with a notch at its lower end, facing the corner, and in the blaze is to

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be marked the number of the range, township,
and section; but at quarter-section corners
nothing but 4 S. need be marked.
ters B. T. (bearing tree) are also to be marked
upon a smaller blaze directly under the large
one, and as near the ground as practicable.
At all township corners, and at all section
corners, on range or township lines, four
bearing trees are to be marked in this manner,
one in each of the adjoining sections.

At interior section corners four trees, one
to stand within each of the four sections to
which such corner is common, are to be
marked in manner aforesaid, if such be found.

A tree supplying the place of a corner post is to be marked in the manner directed for posts, but if such tree should be a beech, or other smooth bark tree, the marks may be made on the bark, and the tree notched.

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SECTION CORNER POST.

two bearing trees are to be marked, one within each of the adjoining sections.

CORNER STONES.

TOWNSHIP CORNER POST.

Where it is deemed best to use stones for boundaries, in lieu of posts, surveyors may, at any

TOWNSHIP CORNER STONE.

corner, insert endwise into the ground, 'to the depth of 7 or 8 inches, a stone, the number of cubic inches in which shall not be less than the number contained in a stone 14 inches long, 12 inches wide, and 3 inches thick-equal to 504 cubic inches-the edges of which must be set north and south, on north and south lines, and east and west, on east and west lines; the dimensions of each stone to be given in the field-notes SECTION CORNER STONE. at the time of establishing the corner.

The kind of stone should also be stated,

MARKING CORNER STONES.

Stones at township corners, common to four townships, must have six notches, cut with a pick or chisel on each edge or side toward the cardinal points; and where used as section corners on the range and township lines, or as section corners in the interior of a township, they will also be notched, to correspond with the directions given for notching posts similarly situated

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