qualitatively is probably without a parallel in the history of science.

Heated controversy wages over many of the implications of the theory, some opposing the theory as radical since other mathematical procedures are possible. Slate would make general the Newtonian relations for energy, momentum, and force, holding that relativity and Newtonian dynamics may be adjusted to eliminate contradictions and reëstablish them as properly equivalent procedures. Holst praises Einstein's success in establishing covariant expressions for general physics but believes many of the results may be obtained from simpler considerations. Larmor holds that what remains of the original notion of relativity coincides with the principle of Newton, Faraday, and Maxwell, originated by Descartes. that the operations of nature are elaborated in a fourfold extension according to a scheme purely differential, that is by transmission from element to element of the cosmos, in no case leaping across intermediate elements as action at a distance would imply. Evershed, doubting the Einstein effect on the basis of his Venus results, still finds the cyanogen band and metal line displacements of the right direction and magnitude for the relativity view. St. John's recent measure from iron lines and the magnesium triplet in the green give displacements smaller than required by Einstein.

So the controversy stands. The apparent confirmations of Einstein's formulas deduced from his theory has aroused profound interest among physicists and has brought the most fundamental concepts of philosophy into the heart of physics. Certainly the implications and conceptions of the finitude of the universe, spherical space, and the meeting of the ends of a straight line, and other almost grotesque deductions will awaken discussion. Perhaps most startling is the computation of the volume of the new universe, that is of the new finite but endless "spherical space."

The expression is that the volume=

7 x 1041

V p3 of dis

cubic centimeters where p is mean density tribution of matter. Last year this review quoted Planck's opinion of Einstein's work. Perhaps the most fulsome tribute to the general relativity theory of Einstein is given by Schlick who has written an excellent treatise on the theory. He says: "The structure of the universe which the general theory of relativity unveils to us, is astounding in its logical consistency, imposing in its grandeur, and equally satisfying for the physicist as for the philosopher. . . . The world is not confined by any boundaries, and is yet harmoniously complete, for no energy or matter can wander off to infinity, because space is not infinite. . . . By a combination of physical, mathematical, and philosophical thought, genius has made it possible to answer, by means of exact methods, questions concerning the universe which seemed doomed forever to remain objects of vague speculation. Once again we recognize the power of the theory of relativity in emancipating human thought, which it endows with a freedom and a sense of power such as has been scarcely attained through any other feat of science."

PHYTO-PATHOLOGY. See BOTANY. PIERREFEU, JEAN DE. See FRENCH LITERA

TURE.

PIERS. See DOCKS AND HARBORS. Y-B-20-24

PILANDER, Admiral A. A. L. Stockholm, Sweden, died August 9.

PILGRIM TERCENTENARY. The 300th anniversary of the year (1620) when the Pilgrims sailed from England to find a home in America was celebrated in 1920 by ceremonies in Great Britain and the Netherlands as well as in the United States. As was noted in the preceding YEAR BOOK the Federal government decided to participate in the celebration and in June, 1919, a committee of Senators and Congressmen was appointed to confer with the Massachusetts State officials to that end. The preliminary activities of societies of Mayflower descendants and other bodies were also noted in the article CELEBRATIONS in that volume. In the United States, the President issued a proclamation, August 4, calling upon the people to participate. This met with a prompt response throughout the whole country. Hundreds of thousands of dollars were appropriated by the cities and nation, and about 2000 cities organized ceremonies including pageants and religious exercises, which lasted from August to the close of the year. Exercises were held at Provincetown, Mass., August 20th and August 30th, in which representatives of Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands took part. The celebration included a parade with many floats representing historical incidents, and addresses from the American Secretary of State and the Dutch representative. Other ceremonies followed at Provincetown in September, November, and December, including the celebration on November 11th of the signing of the compact on board the Mayflower when she was in the Provincetown harbor. November 21st was observed as the Pilgrims' sabbath. Exercises were held at Plymouth December 31st, including speeches by prominent Massachusetts officials. provided that the final celebration should be held at Plymouth in the summer of 1921.

It was

Abroad many commemorative exercises took place in Great Britain and the Netherlands. In February Washington's birthday was celebrated in London with special reference to the Tercentenary and speeches were made by the Lord Mayor and the Lord Chief Justice, to which the American ambassador replied. The earliest pageant was staged at Southampton, July 24. The official celebration took place, September 23, at Plymouth, England, where a pageant was performed around the so-called "Pilgrim Stone," which marked the point from which the Pilgrims had departed. This was witnessed by some 20,000 people. It was followed by a reception in the Guildhall, religious ceremonies, and other celebrations during the week. The event was also celebrated at Dartmouth, September 8, Southampton, September 10, Torquay, September 12, and many other places, including Boston, England. In the Netherlands, the celebrations began at Leyden, August 29, when a memorial service was held at the place where the chief Pilgrim father, John Robinson, had lived. On the same day similar services were held at Amsterdam, where also a meeting attended by about 2000 Dutch, American, and British delegates was held. On September 2d, a boat trip was made along the canal over which the Pilgrims had traveled.

PINES, ISLE OF. An island off the western end of Cuba comprised within the Province of Havana. Area, 986 square miles.

PINK BOLL WORM. See COTTON.

PITTSBURGH, UNIVERSITY OF. An institution of the higher learning, at Pittsburgh, Pa.; founded in 1819 under the name of Western University of Pennsylvania, present name adopted in 1908. The enrollment for the summer session of 1920 was 824, and for the regular fall term, 5256. There were 579 members in the faculty. The library contained about 150,000 volumes. The Alumni Hall was almost ready for occupancy, and cost $550,000. It was the gift of the alumni. President, John Gabbert Bowman, A.M., LL.D. PLANT BREEDING. PLANT DISEASES. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY. See BOTANY. PLANTS, POISONOUS. See VETERINARY MEDICINE.

See BOTANY. See BOTANY.

PLATINUM. With an American stock of platinum at the beginning of 1920 stated at 29,228 troy ounces, or slightly below normal, there were maintained for the first two months of the year the record prices that ruled in 1919. However, notwithstanding the continued absence of large supplies of Russian platinum, imports from Europe increased and platinum from the Choco region and the Cendoto and San Juan rivers of Colombia, South America, reached the United States in increased amounts. In the first nine months of 1920 American imports of platinum amounted to some 58,700 ounces indicating a total for the year of nearly 78,300 ounces or 23,800 ounces more than were imported in 1919. The result of these increased imports and a strike of jewelry workers in the Eastern United States was that the price of platinum fell to $82 an ounce by June, but rallied when jewelry manufacture was resumed to $117 per ounce in early September. Subsequently due to slackened demand it steadily declined until at the end of the year a price of $75 an ounce was reached which had not prevailed since 1916. Of course Russia with her extensive platinum fields was the key to the situation, and it was apparent that until production there was secured there would hardly be a return to pre-war prices. It was considered likely that some small amounts of platinum might enter commerce from Russia through various channels, or with political developments and proper financing some large amounts, but everything depended on the many uncertainties of the country. Larger supplies were received from Colombia in 1920 and with more extensive and more efficient operation it was expected that South American platinum would continue to figure more and more in the world's trade. ALASKA.

WORLD'S

See

PRODUCTION. Statistics of the world's production of platinum and allied metals supplied by the United States Geological Survey on the basis of most reliable information obtainable were as follows:

PLAYGROUND AND RECREATION ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA. This association was organized in 1906 to help in the establishment of year-round municipal recreation systems. Since the war there has been great interest in physical education, and the association feels that it has much to do in this direction. During 1920 the association, as usual, sent field workers into communities desiring their services to help plan the work, and to secure municipal appropriations, published a number of pamphlets, and a monthly magazine, The Playground, answered through correspondence thousands of inquiries from all parts of the world regarding various phases of community recreation, and maintained an employment department for the service of recreation officials and workers throughout the country. Legislation with appropriations has been gained in many of the States and cities for recreational purposes. Compulsory physical education laws have been urged by the National Physical Education Service in both State and Federal legislatures. Considerable progress is reported. The officers for 1920 were: President, Joseph Lee; treasurer, Myron T. Herrick; and secretary, Howard S. Braucher. Headquar ters are at 1 Madison Avenue, New York City.

PODOLIA. Formerly a government of the Russian Empire, but after the revolution comprised within the territory of the Ukrainian Republic; situated to the east of Galicia and between Volhynia and Bessarabia. Area, 16,224 square miles; population, estimated, Jan. 1, 1915, 4,127,600. Capital, Kamenets Polsk, with a population before the war estimated at 52,000, of whom one half were Jews.

POETRY. See LITERATURE, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN; also articles on French, German, Spanish, and Scandinavian Literature.

POINCARE, LUCIEN. French mathematician and physicist, brother of the former president, Raymond Poincaré, and vice-rector of the Academy, died, March 9. He was one of the leading authorities on modern education in France. He taught in the provinces during his early career, but returned to Paris having obtained the degree of Doctor of Science. His works on modern physics and electricity gave him a world-wide reputation. After teaching in the university for some years, he entered the administration and was successively inspector-general of lycées and colleges, director of secondary education, and director of higher education. In October, 1917, he was appointed head of the University of Paris. POISONOUS PLANTS. See VETERINARY MEDICINE.

POLAND. A European state reconstituted as a result of the war and comprising the territory formerly divided among the great powers of Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Prussia after the three partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793, and

1795; boundaries still indefinite at the close of 1920. Before the partition of 1772, the area was 274.018 square miles but this did not represent all the territory which at that time was ethnologically Polish, a number of territories having already been annexed by Austria and Prussia. A Polish estimate in 1919 placed the area at 135,267 square miles and the population at 36,234,727. During 1920 in the discussions of the subject the estimates varied widely from this figure. Before the war Russian Poland had an area of 43,946 square miles with a population estimated Jan. 1, 1915, at 12,247,600, of whom according to the Russian census of 1897, 71.8 per cent were Polish. Roman Catholicism was the religion of about three quarters. The capital is Warsaw, with a population before the war of 909,491; estimated (1919), 820,180.

PRODUCTION, ETC. It has been estimated that 85 per cent of the total area is productive, and about 50 per cent under cultivation. The chief agricultural products have been wheat, rice, bar. ley, oats, and sugar beets. Before the war Polish territory produced great numbers of live stock, especially pigs. In the production of sugar it ranked third before the war and in the production of potatoes it held the second place. The chief minerals are coal, iron ore, zinc, and lead ore, mineral salt. and rock oil. The output of petroleum in Galicia has been placed at 5 per cent of the world's production. The new territory acquired is rich in minerals and in general the mineral wealth is next in importance to the agricultural resources. No later figures for production and commerce were available than those given in the preceding YEAR BOOKS. The railways open for traffic in 1919 had a mileage of 7295. During the year 1920 the first railway line built by Poland since the armistice was formally opened for traffic between Kutno and Strzalkow, 111 kilometers (68.97 miles), effecting a cutoff of 71 kilometers (44.12 miles) in the rail connection between Warsaw and Posen. It had been determined in February, 1919, to undertake construction which was begun the following July. Temporary bridges at first were used but as operation progressed work was prosecuted on building second track and permanent bridges. The new line was intended also to serve as a link in the projected International Transcontinental Railway between Vladivostok, Moscow, Warsaw, Paris, and London. A merchant marine was in process of construction, the Parliament having provided for 220,000 gross tons, including 20 vessels of 8000 tons and 10 of 3000 each, together with small craft for the coast trade. The revenue for the nine months ending March 31, 1920, was placed at 3,060,594,213 Polish marks and the expenditure at 15,158,562,352 Polish marks. (See NAVAL PROGRESS.) At the beginning of 1920 the Polish army was estimated at 700,000 men and 14,000 officers. The military budget for the nine months ending March 31st was estimated at 7,496,184,060 Polish marks.

GOVERNMENT. The constitution under consideration in 1920 provided for universal suffrage of both sexes. Executive power was vested in a president who was commander-in-chief of the army, elected by plebiscite for seven years from two candidates proposed from the Seym or national parliament. Legislative power was in the Seym or parliament and in the president, the latter having the veto power. The President in

1920 was Gen. Joseph Pilsudski, elected Feb. 20, 1919.

The ministry at the beginning of the year was as follows: General Leszniewski, Minister of War; M. Grabski, Minister of Finance; M. Hebdzynski, Minister of Justice; M. Iopuszanski, Minister of Public Instruction; M. Olszewski, Minister of Commerce and Industry; M. Bardell, Minister of Agriculture; M. Coyree, Minister of Transportation; M. Tolloczko, Minister of Posts; M. Kenzidor, Minister of Public Works; M. Sliwinski, Minister of Food; M. Opolowski, Minister of Labor; M. Seyda, Minister of the Former Prussian Province. Owing to the internal disorders, a cabinet crisis occurred and on June 24th a new ministry was constituted as follows: Premier and Minister of Finance, M. Grabski; Minister of War, General Leszniewski; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prince Eugene Sapieha; Minister of Food, Stanislas Slivinski; Minister of Railroads, M. Bartel; Minister of Posts and Telegraphs, M. Tolloczko; Minister of Education, M. Lopuszanski; Minister of Commerce and Industry, Antony Olsewski; Minister of Public Health, M. Chodzko; Minister of Public Works, Gabriel Naruzowicz; Minister of Agriculture, Professor Bujak; Minister of the Interior, M. Kuczynski; Minister of Justice, John Morawski.

CABINET CRISIS. As noted in the last YEAR Book the Paderewski government fell from power. Dec. 7, 1919, and was succeeded by the new ministry mentioned above under Government. In March a revolutionary strike was narrowly averted, following serious labor disorders in Warsaw and in Galicia but in spite of that, protests against the government continued and resulted in attacks upon the ministry in Parliament. A cabinet crisis followed which ended June 24th with the forming of the new ministry which is also noted above under Government. The Radical element including members of the Socialist and Workingmen's parties were dissatisfied and declared their lack of confidence from the first. Meanwhile elections of the Diet were held on May 16th resulting in the following apportion ment of seats among the respective party groups: German National People's party, 34; Independents, 21; Social Democrats, 19; Centre, 17; Free Economic Association party, 12; German Democratic party, 10; Polish, 7.

HISTORY

The

POLAND AND THE SOVIET GOVERNMENT. On January 9th the Polish government declared that it would send troops into the Ukraine, General Denikin having now evacuated that region, and would thus check the advance of Bolshevism. In the latter part of January the Soviet government renewed its demands for peace which had been made on Dec. 22, 1919, saying that it had from the first recognized the independence of the Polish Republic and that no question remained that could not be settled by peaceful means. Polish terms were submitted February 24th, including self-determination for the population west of the frontier of 1772, indemnity for damage done by Russian troops in Poland and under the Russian government to Polish citizens in Russia. The Supreme Council protested February 28th, that Poland's eastern boundary as agreed upon Nov. 25, 1919, lay far to the west of the region claimed. Military operations were resumed early in March. An offensive alliance was formed between Poland and the Ukraine to