Glenlyon was disposed to spare, but an officer named Drummond, who arrived with additional troops about daybreak, found fault with the leniency of his comrade, and ordered him to be shot by a file of musketeers.

RESULTS OF THE MASSACRE; THE FALL OF STAIR.

Some twenty-five persons had been slaughtered. Women and children, too, it was believed had perished in the storm and deep snow on the hill sides, and became the prey of the eagles that haunted the lofty spires of Buachal Etive. The plot for the extermination of the whole clan of Maclan of Glencoe had proved a complete failure, and it served no other purpose than to brand with infamy the name of every man who had art or part in the foul thing. The two "cubs," above all, had succeeded in escaping together up the mountains on hearing the first shots fired. The severe weather had hindered the march of Hamilton, and it was within an hour of midday when he arrived with his forces upon the scene. It has been remarked with a terrible terseness that nothing was left for the lieutenant-colonel but an old man to kill and houses to burn. All the possessions of the Macdonalds of Glencoe were destroyed or carried off.

Tradition and a Jacobite pamphlet which Macaulay has used more freely than he ought perhaps to have done, assert that Glenlyon and his descendants were haunted by the spectre of Maclan and the blood of Glencoe; but the fact is that he lived long afterwards to serve his King and country in Flanders and the Highlands. Within a fortnight it was widely known and talked of in London that the Macdonalds had been murdered in bed after taking the allegiance. But Stair was not ashamed. He even pressed on Hill to continue the work of vengeance : "All I regret is that any of the sept got away; and there is necessity to prosecute them to the utmost. If they could go out of the country, I wish they were let slip."

In May the Council gave permission to the ruined Macdonalds, who had associated themselves with other "loose and broken men" for pursuing the career of freebooters, to return to their native valley under sufficient securities for good conduct; and in the summer of 1695 the Scottish Parliament, under the pressure of the bitter political opponents of Dalrymple, appointed a commission of inquiry as to the authors of the dark tragedy. Even Tarbat was frightened, and was eager for a full and formal pardon for himself, covering the whole of his career : he alleged that the high-toned morality was a mere sham, assumed for the ruin of himself

and his associates by another political clique that, to use his own words, would put a beast's skin on every one not belonging to their club and set the hounds on him. The King was exonerated by the Parliament; the Secretary was declared to have gone beyond his instructions; Livingston and Hill were acquitted of blame; all the other officers, from Hamilton downwards, ought to be prosecuted if His Majesty thought fit.

The matter ended in a mere resolution. It was attended by no disastrous consequence to any of the persons involved in the actual work of blood; and even the maligned Dalrymple, on whom his political enemies on the right and left alike aimed at casting the odium of the barbarous massacre, was acquitted by the King of having any participa tion whatever in the method by which the scheme of extermination was attempted to be carried out. So far his connection with the Glencoe massacre was fatal to his career as a statesman; he resigned the office of Secretary during the summer in which the Commission instituted its inquiries. Long exiled from the councils of the King and the debates of Parliament, he at last weathered the hatred and the disgrace. His sovereign. remembering the services he had bestowed upon the realm of Scotland, exalted him to the dignity of an earldom, and he died in honourable harness, while fighting with all his wisdom and eloquence for the union of the two kingdoms. As novi homines, he and his father were detested by the needy and less capable patricians over whose heads he floated into power, as great men always do, in the crisis of his country; and the screeching calumnies of his jealous foes have been too readily accepted as a basis for the eloquent invective of historians. It is no purpose of ours to enter into any tedious discussion as to the real authors of the massacre. We may not approve of the "legal advantage' on which Dalrymple insisted in striking a blow at the bandits of Glencoe; we confess that he was by no means scrupulous as to the possible method of extermination, and simply put his hands over his eyes while the savage clansmen took their own way of doing his work; but we beg to protest against the constant insinuation or assertion that he dictated the massacre as it actually occurred. His own letter, written in London on the 30th of January, affords incontrovertible evidence that he was utterly ignorant of the project of treacherous assassination under the mask of friendship, and that he was guilty only of advising that the work should be "quietly done," so that the extermination of the thievish clan might be complete.

M. M.

beneath me, not nearly so wide as the Thames, but spreading out opposite to where I am standing, and enclosing two islands, with more bridges than I am able to count. Beyond the river again the busy streets continue, with many a grand spire and dome rising among them. And all these things together make up the city of Paris, the most beautiful city, probably, in the world. Rome is infinitely greater in historical interest, London is vaster, Edinburgh is grander in situation, but in splendour of streets and gaiety of appearance, Paris surpasses them all.

One of these islands of which I have spoken is called "the Isle of the City." It contains the cathedral and the Palace of Justice. When Julius Cæsar came here 2000 years ago this formed the whole city, and its name then was Lutetia Parisiorum, “Mud-Town of the Borderers."* The "Borderers," who occupied the whole district known now as the Isle of France, were at first disposed to be more friendly towards him than their neighbours, and he showed his appreciation of this by convoking a general assembly of the Gauls in this island; but they afterwards turned against his lieutenant, Labienus, and shared the usual fate of being conquered.

When the Romans became possessed of all Gaul, Paris for a while disappears out of the history. Yet it throve, chiefly in consequence of its river commerce. It gradually

extended itself from the islands to the mainland, chiefly on the left bank of the river. The chief temple, that of Jupiter, was on the island, but a great amphitheatre rose up on the left bank, and afterwards a palace of the Emperors, who began, after a while, to make it a favourite residence.

When Christianity began to make its rapid strides towards victory over heathenism, St. Denys, or Dionysius, came to Paris with two companion preachers. He and these companions were beheaded on a hill, which was consequently called "the Martyr's Hill,"Mons Martyrum. You will find the spot in the map of Paris, Montmartre.

It was Julian "the Apostate" who caused the first great advance of Paris to splendour. He preferred it to every city in his empire, and relics of his baths remain to this day. He died in 364, and his successor also dwelt a good deal in Lutetia, though it never became the official capital of Roman Gaul; that honour belonged sometimes to Lyons, sometimes to Treves, sometimes to Arles. It was not even the capital of a province; and this explains why its prelates never took rank as archbishops until the 17th century.

This is Carlyle's interpretation of Parisii, or Barisii. Numerous other interpretations, however, have been given.

They were suffragans only of the Bishop of Sens.

Early in the 5th century lived St. Marcel, who is said to have "delivered the country from a terrible dragon," which, being interpreted, probably signifies that he was the means of destroying paganism. In his time the temple of Jupiter gave place to the first Christian cathedral in Paris. It was dedicated to St. Stephen. But the chief saint of Paris in early times was St. Geneviève, the details of whose history are given in many frescoes on the walls of the Paris churches. Suffice it to say that she spent her life in works of piety and self-denial; that when the fierce Attila came into Gaul bringing destruction and death in his train, it was her prayers, according to popular belief, which kept him out of the city; that when Clovis, King of the Franks, crossed the Rhine and conquered Gaul, and formed the new Frank monarchy, it was Saint Geneviève who persuaded the Parisians not to acknowledge him until he should embrace Christianity; that he was accordingly baptized at Rheims in 496, and entered Lutetia next year; that she died in 512, at the age of eighty-nine, and was buried beside him in the Abbey of St. Peter and St. Paul, which had been founded by his wife Clotilde. The church was from that time known as St. Geneviève, though since it was rebuilt in the 18th century it is more commonly called the Pantheon. The National Convention inscribed on it, "To the memory of our great men;" and here were brought Voltaire, Rousseau, Mirabeau, Marat, to be buried. Their remains, however, were afterwards removed; those of Marat were thrown into a sewer. The shrine of St Geneviève is now to be seen in the neighbouring church opposite, “St. Stephen on the Hill."

THE MEROVINGIAN KINGS.

Clovis, which is the Latin form of the Teutonic Chlodwig, the same name which the French softened into Louis, was the founder of what is known as the Merovingian dynasty in France. It had been, as we know, a Roman country; then, as the Roman power declined, it fell under the Visigoths, whose chief seat of power, however, was in Spain. But the Visigoths were out of harmony with the Church,—they were Arians, who denied the divinity of Christ,and therefore, so it is said, the clergy encouraged King Clovis to come from the Rhine country, and establish himself in Gaul He was nothing loth, and, as we have already said, he agreed after a while to be baptize It was done by St. Remigius, Bishop of Rheims. "Lower thy head with humility." said the eloquent bishop, "adore what thou hast burned, burn what thou hast adored."

From the time of Clovis, the city has come to be called Paris. There are many interesting relics of the Meroving kings in and about Paris, not only coins and implements of war, but deeds and charters with the kings' signatures. The student of French history will find a collection of wonderful interest in the Archives Nationales in the Rue Franc Bourgeois, a collection to which we shall have to refer again. One looks there upon the very documents which passed under the hands of those Meroving kings, who rode in their bullock carts with long hair flowing; for it was law absolute as that of the Medes and Persians that no king could have a razor come upon his head; here are their deeds, grants of lands to faithful followers and to churches. In days when all else was moving and in unrest, the Church remained a permanent institution, and all men felt and recognized its power and usefulness. "The Church!" exclaims Carlyle, "what a word was there; richer than Golconda and the treasures of the world! In the heart of the remotest mountains rises the little kirk; the dead all slumbering around it, under their white memorial stones, 'in hope of a happy resurrection.' Dull wert thou, O reader, if never in any hour (say of moaning midnight, when such kirk hung spectral in the sky, and Being was, as it were, swallowed up in darkness), it spoke to thee things unspeakable, that went up into thy soul's soul. Strong was he that had a Church, what we can call a church; he stood thereby, though in the centre of immensities, in the conflux of eternities, yet manlike towards God and man; the vague, shoreless universe had become for him a firm city, and dwelling which he knew. Such virtue was in belief; in these words well spoken, I believe. Well might men prize their Credo, and raise stateliest temples for it, and reverend hierarchies, and give it the tithe of their substance: it was worth living for and dying for." *

There are two monuments of Merovingian royalty in the abbey church of St. Denys,King Dagobert and Queen Frédégonde. The greater part, however, of this race of kings were buried in the church of "St. Germanus in the Meadows." And now the city began to grow on the north side of the river as well as the south. Two monasteries, St. Martin and St. Lawrence, formed each a nucleus of population, and a hunting-lodge in the midst of a wood was called Lupara, from the number of wolves which infested it. This hunting-lodge was afterwards turned into a castle by King Philip Augustus; and this again was removed to make room for a

"French Revolution," I., 8.

new palace by Francis I., in 1541. This has been altered and enlarged by several monarchs since; but what an effort of imagination is needed to transform the Lupara, or "wolf-haunt,” of the 8th century into the Louvre of the present day.

THE CARLOVINGIANS.

To the Merovingians succeeded the Carlovingians, or, as Mr. E. A. Freeman calls them, the Karlings, the descendants of Charles Martel. The greatest monarch of this line was Charles the Great, commonly known as Charlemagne. This form of his name is unfitting for two reasons. First, he did not speak French but German; and secondly, he did not live at Paris, or in what is now called French territory. His home, and that of nearly all his race, was on the banks of the Rhine. His capital was Aix-la-Chapelle. The period of the Carloving kings, indeed, was not a prosperous one for Paris; they treated it as a simple fief, and as far as French territory was concerned, held their court at Laon. When the fierce Northmen came in the 9th century, and sailed up the Seine and the other northern rivers to plunder and too often to kill, the Karlings almost left Paris to their mercy. This was indeed the cause of their downfall in France, and of the final separation of the empire of Charles the Great into the two divisions which we know as France and Germany.

THE CAPETS.

Whilst the Carlovingian kings were leavin Paris and the Seine country to its fate, a new family was coming into note destined to play a brilliant part in the history of the Frankish nation. In 885, Eudes, or Odo, Count of Paris, aided by the Bishop Gosselin, brilliantly defended the city against an attack of the Normans. They besieged it for a year in vain; then the Carloving king, Charles the Fat, came to succour the city with an army. And his succour consisted in offering the Northmen a large amount of gold to go away. Such a method of deliverance angered both his German army and his Frankish subjects. The former deposed him, the latter severed the connection with the East Franks, preferring to be ruled by their own leader. So Eudes, Duke of Paris, became King of the Franks. He transmitted this crown to his brother Robert, who was unable to hold it long; but his grandson, Hugh Capet, was more successful. He was elected king at Senlis, June 30th, 987, and solemnly crowned at Rheims, the ecclesiastical metropolis of France, on the following day. But let it be remembered that this King of the Franks by no means held undivided dominion over the whole country which we now call France, or even over the greater part of

it. If we take Normandy to begin with, we must remember that it was ruled by a Duke of Normandy, whose dominion, so long as he ruled justly, was as much his as that of Paris was under the personal rule of the King. If there were complaints made of his government, appeal lay to the King of the Franks. He was "overlord" of the country, and the peers who ruled the provinces were his vassals; they did homage to him on their entering upon their inheritance, but with this provision for their righteous rule, their possessions were like a freehold. There were many times when these great fief-holders were quite as powerful as he who was called king. The first Capets only held as their personal heritage the provinces of the Isle of France, Picardy, the Orleannois. The rest were fiefs which became added one by one to France, as we shall see presently.

From Hugh Capet the French crown descended directly from father to his eldest son for twelve generations, then the line was broken. King Louis X. left no son. He had a daughter; but, according to the Salic law which prevailed among the Franks, she could not succeed, so the kingdom passed to the brother of King Louis. He too died without sons, so a third brother came, Charles IV. He was the last male of the line; so the Crown went to his cousin Philip, son of Charles of Valois, who was a younger brother of King Philip IV. Hence we know the first branch as the House of Capet, the second as that of Valois. But as we see, both alike sprang from Hugh Capet.

PARIS UNDER THE CAPETS.

We have now to review the history of Paris under the Capet kings. The first four of them, Hugh, Robert, Henry I., Philip I., resided not so much at Paris as at Orleans. Louis VI. and VII. principally dwelt at Paris, but it was the next monarch, Philip Augustus, who did more for it than any of his predecessors. He it was indeed who definitely made it the capital, established the officers of government there, and built the "great tower of the Louvre," in which he deposited the State papers and treasures. He also fortified the "faubourgs" which had grown up on both sides of the river, and for the first time made them an integral part of the city. He reigned for forty-three years, during which the city grew so much that it was divided into eight "quarters" instead of four. He also paved the streets, which hitherto had been impassable in rainy weather, built great market-places and several bridges. But he further vastly increased the importance of Paris by organising and grouping together, under the title of the University, the lectures in literature, philosophy, and theology, which were at that time flour

ishing in their strength under the hands of those learned men who have given to these days the name of "Age of the Schoolmen." The University of Paris was founded in 1200, and completely organized by 1215. It was on the left bank of the river, separate from the rest of the city, and called "The Latin Quarter," a name which it retains to this day. The character which it soon acquired for learning, the facilities which it rendered to those who sought its benefits but were too poor to pay for them, gave it a renown surpassing that of any place in Europe. Thus Paris now became the political capital of France and the literary capital of Europe. To have studied at Paris was among the highest honours which a literary man could aspire to. It is remarkable that in the 13th century, which produced the noblest cathedrals, so many of the architects were from the University of Paris. The further development of the Sorbonne, named after its founder, Robert Sorbon, belongs to the reign of Louis IX., A.D. 1250.

To Philip Augustus also France owed much for uniting the monarchy. The original personal domain of Hugh Capet, as we have seen, included only the Isle of France, Picardy, and Orleannois. Normandy, formed into a state by Rollo, or Rou, whose name survives in its capital, Rouen, where his tomb is still to be seen, passed to the kings of England when a duke of Normandy became the English conqueror. Philip Augustus wrested it from King John. But by his able centralisation of the administration of justice he increased his power and influence over the other fiefs. The result of this showed itself in a very marked way under Louis IX., who established a parliament. The Provost of Paris was at the head of the municipal administration. He was a judiciary, always a royal officer. He was a distinct personage from the "Provost of the Merchants," who took charge of all which concerned commerce and provisionment. He was in reality, though not in title, the mayor of Paris. The first town-hall was on the left bank of the river, not far from St. Geneviève. Louis IX. built a grand palace on the Isle of the City. The present Palace of Justice is built on the site of it, and several portions of the original palace still exist, as the kitchens, the great guardroom, the round towers which face the street, and above all the beautiful Sainte Chapelle, a church of two stories, in the upper of which is an empty shrine, formerly containing the relics which he brought from the East, and which are now in Notre Dame. This church is one of the most lovely specimens of Gothic architecture in the world.

Of all the French kings, Louis IX. loved justice most. It was a veritable passion with him.

Hallam expresses his opinion that his