36. Demonstrative Adjectives are such as are used to point out, with greater or less precision, the things of which we are speaking, and include—

1. The so-called definite article1 'the' (O.E. se, seó, that). 'The' was formerly inflected for gender, number, and case.

It is used

a. To point out some particular thing referred to; e.g. it was said of a great statesman that he was never in want of a word; of his rival that he was never in want of the word; viz. the word which precisely expressed his meaning.

6

b. To point out that we are speaking of a whole species or class, e.g. 'the lion,' the ocean,' the good,' 'there is but one step from the sublime to the ridiculous.' In such constructions as the following, the represents thí, the old ablative of the article, e.g. 'the more the merrier,' i.e. by how many more by so many merrier; the rather.'

2. Pronominal Adjectives, i.e. words which may be used for a noun or to limit a noun. In virtue of the former power they are called pronominal; in virtue of the latter, adjective, e.g. these books, each day, either book, any boy, my tea, some food. These will be dealt with more fully hereafter. They may be classified as follows-

a. Demonstrative, this, these, that, those, such, same. b. Distributive, each, every, either, neither.

c. Indefinite, other, some.

d. Possessive, my, thy, his, her, &c.

e. Interrogative, which, what.

3. Ordinal Numerals.

a. Definite, as first, second.

b. Indefinite, as next, previous, last, former, latter, every other, alternate.

1 Article, Lat. articulus, a little joint. A name (a) correctly given by the Greeks to their "article" because it served as a joint uniting several words together; (b) then loosely used by the Latins (as was natural, seeing they had no "article") of any short word, whether verb, conjunction, or pronoun; (c) foolishly introduced into English, and once used to denote "the" and "a."-Dr. Abbott, How to Parse.

It will be observed that when these words are followed by a noun they do not stand for that noun, but merely limit it. They are, therefore, clearly not pronouns in such constructions.

Exercises.

Classify the adjectives in the following passages

a. When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall, one by one, an unpitied sacrifice, in a contemptible struggle.

b. Sweet day! so cool, so calm, so bright.-Herbert. For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey,

C.

This pleasing anxious being e'er resigned,

Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day,

Burke.

Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind?-Gray.

d. My sentence is for open war.-Milton.

e. There's but a shirt and a half in all my company; and the half-shirt is but two napkins, tacked together and thrown over the shoulders like a herald's coat without sleeves.-Shakspere.

f. Three misbegotten knaves in Kendal green.-Id.

g. There be four of us here have ta'en a thousand pound this day morning.... I am a rogue if I were not at half-sword with a dozen of them two hours together. I have scaped by miracle. I am eight times thrust through the doublet; four through the hose. Id.

h.

There were his young barbarians all at play,
There was their Dacian mother-he, their sire,
Butchered to make a Roman holiday.-Byron.

i.

Fresh as the first beam glittering on a sail,
That brings our friends up from the underworld,
Sad as the last which reddens over one

That sinks with all we love below the verge;

So sad, so fresh, the days that are no more.-Tennyson.

k. One sun by day--by night ten thousand shine.

Master Caperwit, before you read, pray tell me,

Have your verses any adjectives?

Master Caperwit.

Adjectives! would you have a poem without

Adjectives? they are the flower, the grace of all our language.
A well-chosen epithet doth give new soul
To fainting poesy, and makes every verse
A bride! With adjectives we bait our lines
When we do fish for gentlewomen's loves,

And with their sweetness catch the nibbling ear
Of amorous ladies; with the music of

These ravishing nouns we charm the silken tribe,
And make the gallant melt with apprehension
Of the rare word. I will maintain it against
A bundle of grammarians, in poetry

The substantive itself cannot subsist
Without its adjective.

Friend.

But, for all that,

Those words would sound more full, methinks, that are not
So larded; and, if I might counsel you,

You should compose a sonnet clean without them.

A row of stately substantives would march

Like Switzers, and bear all the field before them;
Carry their weight; show fair, like deeds enrolled;
Not writs that are first made and after filled.
Thence first came up the title of blank verse ;-
You know, sir, what blank signifies ?- where the sense,
First framed, is tied with adjectives like points,
And could not hold together without wedges:

Hang it, 'tis pedantic, vulgar poetry.

Let children, when they versify, stick here

And there these peddling words for want of matter.
Poets write masculine numbers.—Shirley.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

37. Various objects may possess the same quality in different degrees. Thus they may be all white, but one may be whiter than another, and one may be the whitest of them all. To mark these different degrees the adjective which denotes the quality is inflected.

38. The simple form of the adjective is said to be of the Positive Degree, e.g. 'a bright day,'' a large tree.'

That form of the adjective which is used to show that something possesses the quality denoted by the adjective in a higher or lower degree than something else, is said to be of the Comparative Degree, e.g. This tree is larger than that,'' Choose the less evil.'

Some adjectives denoting qualities that do not admit of comparison are not compared.

Such are adjectives denoting

a. Material, as golden, wooden.

b. Figure, as square, triangular.

c. Time, as monthly, annual.

d. Place, as European, insular.

e. Other qualities which exist only in the highest degree, e.g. extreme, top, bottom, perfect, eternal, perpetual, everlasting.

In some cases, however, these adjectives are no longer strictly used in their literal sense, and in such cases are often compared. Thus we have 'extremest,' 'more perfect,' &c.

That form of the adjective which is used to show that a thing possesses the quality denoted by the adjective in the highest or lowest degree, is said to be of the Superlative Degree (Lat. super, above; latus, carried), e.g. 'This is the largest tree,' 'Choose the least evil.'

39. Formation of the Comparative Degree.

a

1. By the addition of -r or -er, e.g. 'a wiser man,' fairer scene.' If the positive degree end in y, the y is changed into i before the termination -er, e.g. holy, .holier. If it end in a consonant preceded by a short vowel, the consonant is doubled, e.g. red, redder.

2. By placing the words more or less before the positive form; e.g. more extraordinary, less distinguishable. As a rule the only adjectives that form their comparative degree with the help of 'more' are words of two or more syllables.

Some adjectives have the comparative form, but do not take than after them. They include

1. Certain English adjectives, some of which would appear to be formed from prepositions, e.g. hinder, latter, nether, inner, utter, outer, &c.

2. Certain Latin adjectives which have been adopted in their comparative form, e.g. exterior, interior, junior, senior, major, minor.

40. Formation of the Superlative.

1. By the addition of -st or -est to the positive degree, e.g. 'the wisest man,'' the fairest scene.'

2. By the suffix -most, e.g. 'the foremost,' 'the inmost,' 'the utmost.' This suffix is supposed to be compounded of two elements. In O.E. there were two superlative endings, viz. -ema and -est or -ost.

lowing are specimens of the former

O.E.

The fol

O.E.

Compare the Latin superlatives extremus, infimus, supremus, optumus (old Latin), postumus.

It seems probable that the termination -st was added when the force of the old termination was lost. We find in O.E., in addition to the above, such forms as innemest, ytemest, nithemest, &c.

3. By placing the words most or least before the positive degree; e.g. most musical, most melancholy, least worthy.

Extreme and supreme are Latin superlatives, but are often used in English as of the positive degree.

41. Irregular Comparisons-

1. By change of vowel, as in old, elder, eldest.
2. By contraction, as in late, latter, last.

3. By taking one degree from one root and another from another, as good, better, best.

4. By forming the comparative and superlative from adverbs or prepositions, e.g. neath, nether, nethermost.

Late, latter (later), last (latest). The duplicate forms in the comparative and superlative degree have now distinct significations. Old, elder (older), eldest (oldest). The distinctions between our use of 'older' and 'elder,' and of 'oldest' and 'eldest,' are very nice. Dean Alford says: We cannot say " Methuselah was the eldest man that ever lived; we must say, "the oldest man that ever lived." Again, it would hardly be natural to say "his father's oldest born," if we were speaking of the firstborn. If we were to say of a father, "He was succeeded by his oldest son," we should convey the impression that that son was not the eldest, but the oldest surviving after the loss of the eldest. And these examples seem to bring us to a kind of insight into the idiomatic difference. "Eldest" implies not only more years, but also priority of right [Qy. in time]; nay, it might sometimes even be independent of actual duration of life. A firstborn who died an infant was yet the eldest son. If all mankind were assembled, Methuselah would be the oldest, but Adam would be the eldest of men.'-Queen's English, p. 140. It may be added that we do not apply 'elder' and 'eldest' to things or places. We should not say of one of two cities that it was the elder of the two.

Nigh, nigher, nighest (next).

Near, nearer, nearest.

The positive form in O.E. was neah, so that our present positive form near is really a comparative, and nearer a double comparative. Cp