The phonetic decay of O.E. in the tenth century is doubtless to be mainly ascribed to the Danish invasions.

THE LATIN ELEMENT IN MODERN ENGLISH.

278. The Romans occupied Britain for about four hundred years. The Latin introduced by the Romans themselves has been called Latin of the First Period. The Latin brought in through intercourse with the Church of Rome between the coming over of St. Augustine and the Norman Conquest is called Latin of the Second Period. The Latin that came to us through the Normans in the corrupt form of Norman French is called Latin of the Third Period. The Latin that has been introduced by scholars since the revival of learning (latter part of the fifteenth century) is called Latin of the Fourth Period.

I. LATIN OF THE FIRST PERIOD, A.D. 43–410.

279. The words of Latin origin that have survived from this period are connected with the military stations and the great Roman roads. They are only six in number—

Castra, a camp: Lancaster, Castor, Caistor, Chester, Bicester, Gloucester, Exeter (Ex-cester).

Colonia, a colony: Lincoln.

Fossa, a trench: Fossway, Fossbury, Fossdyke.

Portus, a harbour: Porchester, Portsmouth.

Strata, a paved way: Strutton, Stradbrook, Ystrad (common in Wales), Stretton, Streatham, Street.

Vallum, a rampart: Wallbury (Essex), Wall Hill (Herefordshire), both old Roman forts.

II. LATIN OF THE SECOND PERIOD, A.D. 596-1066.

280. The close connection between the Church of England and the Church of Rome, consequent upon the mission of St. Augustine, the translation into English of Latin books, and the growing commerce of England with southern Europe, led to the introduction of a large number of words of classical origin. These consisted mainly of

The following are of Greek origin, but came to us first

(b) Names of foreign animals, trees, plants, &c.—

III. LATIN ELEMENT OF THE THIRD PERIOD, A.D. 1066-1480.

281. The Normans who invaded England in 1066 had previously invaded France (A.D. 876), and had settled in that part of the country that we now call Normandy. They soon gave up their own language in France and adopted French, a language containing various Teutonic and Keltic elements, but consisting mainly of debased Latin. When they established themselves in England they brought with them their new language. French would appear to have been the language commonly used by our English kings right down to the end of the fourteenth century. Professon Craik says that it is not known that, with the exception of Richard II., any of them ever did or could speak English.' The influence of the court, however, was trivial by the side of that exerted by the large body of Normans who came over with the Conqueror, and by the constant stream of communication that was kept up with France so long as we retained our continental possessions. 'A very great number of Normans, all speaking French, were brought over and settled

in the kingdom. There were the military forces, by which the conquest was achieved and maintained, both those in command and the private soldiers; there was a vast body of churchmen spread over the land, and occupying eventually every ecclesiastical office in it, from the primacy down to that of the humblest parish or chapel priest, besides half filling, probably, all the monastic establishments; there were all the officers of state and inferior civil functionaries down to nearly the lowest grade; finally, there were, with few exceptions, all the landholders, great and small, throughout the kingdom. The members of all these classes and their families must have been at first entirely ignorant of English, and they and their descendants would naturally continue for a longer or shorter time to use only the language of their ancestors.' '1

French soon came to be exclusively used in the pleadings in the higher law-courts. All the new laws were promulgated in Latin until 1272, when they began to be drawn up sometimes in Latin but more frequently in French. After 1487 they were promulgated in English.

Thus, for some hundreds of years, French was spoken by the most influential classes of the country-by the Court, by the landowners, by the clergy, by the lawyers, and by their attendants. It ought not to surprise us, therefore, that during this period large numbers of French words found their way into the language. But though we borrowed largely from the French in our vocabulary, we did not borrow from it at all in our grammar. Our laws of inflexion and syntax did, indeed, during this period undergo great changes, but it was not through the substitution of the laws of French grammar for those of our own. English remained English, and by degrees was adopted by the Normans themselves.

282. The loss of our French possessions in the reign of King John must have greatly contributed to naturalize the Anglo-Normans in England, and to weaken their hold of the French language. Craik dates the decline of the French language in England to the strong anti-French feeling engendered by the French wars of Edward III. Certain it is that the decline went on at a very rapid rate from the middle of the fourteenth century. Higden, writing towards

1 Outlines of the Hist. of the Eng. Lang., p. 46.

the close of the century, informs us that in 1349 boys were no longer required to learn their Latin through French.1 In 1362 English was substituted for French and Latin in our courts of law.

It should be noted that Latin words coming to us through French have, for the most part, undergone very considerable contraction.

They consist of—

(a) Terms connected with Feudalism, War, and the

Chase

This apayringe (disparaging) of the birthe tonge is bycause of tweye thinges: oon is for children in scole, agenes the usage and maner of all other naciouns beth (are) compelled for to leve her (their) own langage, and for to constrewe her (their) lessouns and her (thingis) a Frensche, and haveth siththe (since) that the Normans come first into England. Also gentil mennes children beth ytaught for to speke Frensche from the tyme that thei beth (are) rokked in her (their) cradel, and kunneth (can) speke and playe with a childes brooche. And uplondish (upstart) wol likne hemself to gentil men, and fondeth with gret bisynesse for to speke Frensche, for to be the more ytold of. This maner was myche yused to-fore the first moreyn (murrain, the Great Plague of 1348), and is siththe (since) some del ychaungide. For John Cornwaile, a maistre of grammer, chaungide the lore (teaching) in grammer scole, and construction of Frensch into Englisch, and Richard Pencricke lerned that maner [of] teching of him, and other men of Pencricke. So that now, the yere of our lord a thousand three hundred four score and fyve, of the secunde King Rychard after the Conquest nyne, in alle the gramer scoles of Englond children leveth (leave) Frensch, and construeth and lerneth an (in) Englisch, and haveth therby avauntage in oon side and desavauntage in another. Her (their) avauntage is, that thei lerneth her (their) gramer in lesse tyme than children were wont to do. Desavauntage is, that now children of gramer scole kunneth (knoweth) no more Frensch than can her lifte heele (their left heel). And that is harm for hem (them) and (if) thei schul passe the see and travaile in strange londes, and in many other places [cases ?] also. Also gentil men haveth now much ylefte for to teche her (their) children Frensch.'-From Trevisa's Translation of Higden's Polychronicon, i. 59.

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