stationed in that district. He reduced Anglesea a second time. He established the Roman power nearly to the borders of Scotland; and to keep the highlanders in check, Agricola built (81 A.D.) a chain of forts from the Frith of Forth to that of the Clyde. After this he crossed the Grampians and conquered a Caledonian army, commanded by Galgacus, their chief. The Emperor Adrian (121 A.D.) ordered a second wall to be built from the Solway Firth to the Tyne. A third wall was erected by the Emperor Severus (died at York 211 A.D.). Portions of these walls may be seen at the present time. There were ninety cities which grew up in Britain; of these thirty-three have been preserved, and they may be considered among the most important Roman monuments now remaining. All names of places with the word "caster or cester" suffixed denote their previous connection with the Romans. We also find words connected with the Christian worship were introduced by the Roman monks, such as minster for monasterium; preach for prædicare. Many customs which now prevail were introduced by the Romans, such as the ceremonies connected with marriages, deaths, &c. As to the introduction of Christianity by the Romans it seems somewhat doubtful; but we are told that Paul and his disciples converted many of the Britons. After the Romans left Britain, the inhabitants, who had lived in peace under their rule, were frequently annoyed by the incursions of the Picts and Scots. Vortigern sought in vain the aid of the Romans, and he was therefore compelled to hire foreign mercenaries to assist him in defending his faction. He afterwards asked the aid of two Saxons, named Hengist and Horsa, who landed at Ebbs-fleet, in Kent. The terms were arranged, and with their assistance the Picts and Scots were exterminated. Vortigern therefore consented that more Saxons should be brought over. Seventeen vessels came shortly after, and Rowena, the daughter of Hengist, was in one of them. It is said that Vortigern was struck with the beauty of Rowena, whom he married. For about six years the Saxons conducted themselves very peaceably, but they disagreed between themselves and war ensued. Horsa was killed in one battle and Hengist left the kingdom; but on the death of Vortimer, who had usurped the throne of Vortigern, Hengist returned, and after killing many of the British chiefs he became the king of Kent. He died in 488 A.D. and left the throne to his son Esc. A body of Saxons, under the conduct of Ella and his three sons, had some time before laid the foundation of the kingdom of the South Saxons. There were besides many smaller kingdoms founded. Bretwalda. This term has led to much controversy. It was a term applied to the (seven) kings who governed the states during the Saxon period. Frankpledge came out of the laws of Edward the Confessor. It was this, that in all the vills throughout the kingdom all men were bound to be in a guarantee by tens, so that if one of the ten men offended, the other nine might hold him to right, but if he should flee and they allege they could not have him to right, then thirty-one days were granted to them to bring him to justice. It was necessary for the nine to make oath that they took no part in the offence. Witenagemôt was the national council or legislature of England in the days of the Saxons. It was an assembly of the witans or wise men. 3. Write a life of one of the following:-Edward the Confessor, Henry I., Thomas à Becket. 4. Mention the principal events which took place in the reign of Henry III. Bocland.-In the Saxon times, when land was granted to individuals in perpetuity as freehold, it was called boc-land from boc, a book or writing, because, after the introduction of writing, such estates were conveyed by a deed or charter. Weregild was a fine imposed in the Saxon times on anyone for personal violence. The amount of the weregild varied according to the injury done and rank and property of the individual. For this purpose all commoners were divided into three classes: first, the tyrehind man or ceorl, whose fine was 200 shillings; secondly, the sixhind man or lesser thane, whose were was 600 shillings; and, thirdly, the royal thane, whose death could not be compensated under 1,200 shillings. Thomas à Becket (born 1117 A.D.) was the son of Gilbert Becket, a merchant of London. According to the chroniclers, his father, following the English army to Palestine as a merchant adventurer, became, by ill luck, a slave to a rich Mussulman, whose daughter, conceiving an affection for the captive Englishman, furnished him with means of escape, intending to accompany him. Gilbert regained his liberty, but, from some cause not mentioned, left his deliverer behind. Nothing daunted, the maid followed him to London, and walking the streets, continually pronounced the name of her lover, till Becket, hearing thereof, made her first a Christian and then his wife. Thomas, said to be the son of this union, received the elements of his education at Merton Abbey, in Surrey, and completed it at the celebrated schools in London, Oxford and Paris. On the death of his father he was taken into the family of Theobald, the primate, by whom he was sent to perfect his knowledge of the civil and canon law, under Gratian, at Bologna. On his return he received ecclesiastical preferment, and was then sent to Rome on business relating to the see of Canterbury. Theobald made him successively archdeacon of Canterbury, provost of Beverley, and prebendary of Lincoln and St. Paul's. In 1158, Henry made him his chancellor, being the first Englishman appointed to an important office since the Conquest. As there are many questions, and the circumstances which led to his death are so well known, we cannot devote more space to this answer. On the death of John, Louis VIII. held London, but all Englishmen deserted him. Henry being only ten years old, the Earl of Pembroke was appointed regent. Louis, who had brought over a fleet and troops, was defeated at Lincoln, and soon after Hubert de Burgh destroyed the French fleet off Calais, causing quicklime to be thrown in the faces of the French. Pembroke died (1223 A.D.) in the third year of his regency, and Hubert de Burgh and Peter de Roches were appointed to manage the affairs of the state. In 1225 a tax was granted for an expedition to France to recover Poitou and Guienne, but it was unsuccessful. The King cast the blame on De Burgh, who was disgraced and sent from prison to prison until he again rose in favour. He was ultimately banished from the kingdom. The barons revolted under Simon de Montford, Earl of Leicester, brother-in-law of the king. An assembly, called the Mad Parliament, met at Oxford and appointed a committee to reform the state. The enactments were: 1. That four knights should be elected to represent the freeholders of every county. 2. That sheriffs should be elected annually. 3. That accounts of the public money should be given annually. 4. That parliament should meet three times a year, in February, June and October. 5. What was the origin of the term Plantagenet? How long, and in the persons of what monarchs, did the dynasty continue? 6. Write a sketch of the life of one of the most eminent historical characters in the reign of Henry VIII. The barons were enraged at the king breaking his promises, and they rose under Simon de Montfort. A battle was fought at Lewes, in Sussex (1264), and Henry and his son Edward were taken prisoners; but Edward escaping, met Leicester at Evesham, in Worcestershire (1265), where a battle was fought, ending in the death of Leicester. The term Plantagenet is derived from planta-genista, the Latin for the shrub we call broom, which, as an emblem of humility, was worn by the first Earl of Anjou when a pilgrim to the Holy Land. The Plantagenet period lasted from 1154 A.D. to 1399 A.D.- 1189-1199 .. 10 56 29 . 1377-1399 22 Wolsey was born (1471 A.D.) at Ipswich, of parents who were sufficiently wealthy to provide a good education for their son ; but whether his father was a butcher or grazier, as is commonly asserted, is uncertain; sent to Magdalen College, Oxford, he graduated at the age of fifteen, when he was called "the boy bachelor." From the Marquis of Dorset he received his first ecclesiastical preferment, the living of Lymington. He next became deputy for Sir John Nanfan, treasurer of Calais, and by him was recommended to the service of Henry VII., who soon discovered Wolsey's ready ability, and made him Dean of Lincoln (1508). On the accession of Henry VIII., he retained his favour with the court, and rose so quickly in the king's good graces, that he soon did nearly what he pleased. At different times he held the sees of Tournay, Lincoln, Winchester and York, and the dignity of cardinal and papal legate; and he likewise farmed for the foreign bishops who held them the revenues of the dioceses of Bath, Worcester, and Hereford. His ambition, not yet satisfied, aimed at the popedom, and was twice disappointed, a piece of ill fortune which he attributed to Charles, whom he ever afterwards held in aversion. Wolsey's temporizing policy with regard to the king's divorce brought about his fall. Being charged with transgressing the Statute of Præmunire, he confessed his guilt, and was sentenced to lose the protection of the law, to forfeit all his property, and to be in person at the mercy of the king. Henry vouchsafed him a momentary gleam of royal favour, and then ordered his arrest for treason. On the road from York to London, he died of dysentery in the monastery at Leicester, having first given utterance to the memorable sentence-" If I had served God as diligently as I have done the king, He would not have given me over in my gray hairs." Wolsey attained his elevation by a winning address, combined with shrewdness, talent and learning; his ambition was unlimited; his rapacity great; he was arrogant and overbearing, and extremely fond of splendour and parade. But he was a great minister, enlightened beyond the age in which he lived, diligent in business, and a good servant to the king; for when his authority was established, he checked the king's cruelty, restrained many of his caprices, and kept his passions within bounds; the latter part of Henry's reign was very far more criminal than that during which the cardinal presided over his counsels; he died 1530 A.D. The Old Pretender was James Francis Edward, son of James II. by Mary of Modena; by the Jacobites he was sometimes called James III., but more generally the Chevalier of St. George. On the death of James II. (1701) France and other powers acknowledged the Pretender as king of England. In 1708 Louis of France sent him with a force to Scotland; but the expedition was unsuccessful. In 1715, in consequence of the rebellions in England and Scotland in his favour, the Pretender appeared in Scotland among his supporters. He was assisted by the Earl of Mar, who, having gathered around him 10,000 clansmen, held all the highlands; but he was closely watched by the Duke of Argyle, who defeated him at the battle of Sheriffmuir in the south of Perthshire. At Perth the Pretender wasted many days; and while preparing for his coronation he heard that Argyle was advancing, and he retreated northward towards Montrose, where he and Mar embarked for France. Four years after he married Maria Clementina, granddaughter of John Sobieski, King of Poland, by whom he had Charles Edward (the young Pretender) and Henry Benedict, subsequently known as Cardinal York, who died at Rome, 1807. The Young Pretender was Charles Edward Stuart, son of James, the old Pretender. In 1744 he was brought from Rome to take part in the expedition for the invasion of England. In 1745 he landed at Moidart on the coast of Inverness-shire. He was accompanied by a few followers, and to him was opposed Sir John Cope, who commanded the royal forces. At Perth Charles was proclaimed Regent, and everyone-magistrates and citizens-welcomed him, and he took up his abode in the palace of Holyrood. A few days after was fought the battle of Preston Pans, which resulted in favour of the young Pretender. He took Carlisle in three days; but he was not as favourably received as he expected. He reached Derby, and was advised to return. For some months he wandered among the Grampians, and was finally routed by the Duke of Cumberland on Culloden Moor (1746), nine miles from Inverness. After staying five months in Scotland, he went to France and remained till the peace of 1748. For some time he appears to have been a wanderer in western Europe. When all the European courts refused to assist him he sunk into a life of depravity. Henry VII. was the son of Margaret Beaufort and Edmund Tudor, son of Owen Tudor, who married Catherine, widow of Henry V. Margaret Beaufort was the daughter of John Beaufort, son of John Duke of Lancaster (by Catherine Synford), third son of Edward III. Henry VII. also claimed the throne by right of conquest, but he dared not assert this openly, as it would have united against him both friends and foes; for it was held that a conqueror might dispossess men of their lands. The third claim was the marriage between himself and Elizabeth of York, which ultimately proved to be the only claim of real value. James I. of England (and VI. of Scotland) was the son of Mary Queen of Scots, daughter of James V., who was the son of James IV., who married Margaret, the eldest daughter of Henry VII.-hence James I. derived his claim as the representative of Margaret. 11. What were the causes which led war beto the England tween and America, and AND STUDENT'S LITERARY MAGAZINE. George I. was the son of Sophia (who married the Elector of Hanover), youngest daughter of Elizabeth, who was the daughter of James I. The Lollards were the followers of Wycliffe, who, in order to extend his opinions, hired itinerating preachers, and from these grew up a sect to whom this name was given. It is no doubt derived from lullen or löllen, to sing with a subdued voice, from their practice of singing hymns. Nonconformists, a name given to the Puritans who refused to be bound by the Act of Supremacy and Act of Conformity passed in the reign of Elizabeth, and also to those who refused to conform to the Act of Uniformity, passed 1662 A.D., in the reign of Charles II. Non-Jurors, a term applied to those peers who refused to attend the Convention Parliament summoned by William III., who was not then crowned. This celebrated general was born (1650) at Ashe, in Devon, and descended from an ancient family, whose fortunes had suffered by their devotion to the cause of Charles I. At the Restoration the father was compensated for his losses by some Arabella, his appointments for himself and his children. daughter, became maid of honour to the Duchess of York and her brother John page to the duke. To gratify his desire for a military life, his patron obtained for him a commission in the guards; and the young soldier served with some distinction at Tangier and the Low Countries during the reign of Charles II. In 1681 he married Sarah Jennings, both of them retaining positions in the ducal household. The year following he was raised to a Scotch barony and made colonel in the guards. When James succeeded to the throne he was created Baron Churchill, and soon rendered his patron effective service in the suppression of Monmouth's insurrection. His subsequent desertion of his royal master is one of the foul blots on the character of Churchill. For his treachery he was rewarded with the title of Earl of Marlborough, and yet, like most of the men of the revolutionary period, he intrigued with the exile king. William quite understood him, employing him at one time and at another depriving him of his posts and even of his liberty. As a general Marlborough possessed consummate ability, and won as much honour to the English nation as he did to himself; and yet he was so ill-treated by many as to be compelled to seek a refuge on the continent. Returning to England on the death of Anne, he was restored to his dignities and put in office, but no great confidence was placed in him. In military tactics Marlborough was the greatest general of his age, and in diplomacy not inferior In private life his to many who made it a special profession." morals were exemplary and his temper gentle and affectionate. The charge of peculation brought against him in the parliament of 1711 had in it more of party spite than of legal ground. He died 1722 A.D. In 1764 the English government imposed duties on several articles of American trade, and a Stamp Act was passed (1765) to charge the colonists with stamp duties the same as England. The Americans were enraged at this, and the act was ultimately repealed, but in 1767 the English parliament passed a bill for levying import duties in America on glass, paper, painters' colours and tea; these the colonists resolved not to pay. In the C |