tion of what remained of the buildings, in order to prevent them from again becoming a shelter to the enemy.

46. While these important events, big with the future fate of old Hellas, were in progress in the Morea, the Greeks experienced a dreadful reverse in the peninsula of Cassandra. The position of that mountain-ridge, wash

been expected, or, with more unanimity, might have been effected. Ipsilanti took the command of the army before Napoli di Romania, and prosecuted the siege with great vigour, in hopes of effecting the reduction of that important stronghold before the garrison was revictualled by sea in the following spring. This celebrated fortress, which in situation very closely resem-ed by the waters of the Archipelago, bles Gibraltar, is extremely strong, and by a few additions might be rendered impregnable. The citadel of Palamido, situated on a frowning rock eight hundred feet high, the base of which is washed by the sea, seemed almost beyond the reach of attack; and though the garrison consisted only of one thousand five hundred men, encumbered with ten times that number of useless mouths, yet there were four hundred guns mounted on the ramparts, and the main warlike stores of the Turks were deposited within its walls. Animated by the hopes of gaining so rich a prize, the Greeks, on the night of the 15th December, attempted an escalade. So excessive was the negligence of the Turks that it had very nearly succeeded; and with more unanimity and resolution on the part of the besiegers, it unquestionably would have done so. But some of the assaulting parties refused to advance, others failed, and the attack was repulsed, after which the siege was turned into a mere blockade. At the same time, the insurgents experienced a severe check in the ruins of Patras. Encouraged by the fall of Tripolitza, a body of five thousand Peloponnesians, by a sudden assault, made themselves masters of the town, and remained there, blockading the citadel, till the beginning of December. Then Jussuf Pacha, observing how bad a look-out the Greeks kept, and knowing how completely their chiefs were divided, marched from the Morea Castle with four hundred men, and, aided by a sally from the citadel, drove the Greeks out of the town. Mavrocordato and the generals escaped with difficulty to Argos, but the greater part of the insurgents in the town were destroyed; and the Turks immediately commenced the destruc

and its close vicinity to the important town and harbour of Salonica, the centre of all the operations of the Turks in that quarter, rendered it an object of the highest importance to the Turks to extinguish the insurrection in its fastnesses. Accordingly, during the whole of October, large bodies of Asiatics were brought over from Smyrna, and on the 11th November, on a signal given by the discharge of a bomb, the Ottoman horde, ten thousand strong, rushed to the assault. Although the Greeks defended their intrenchments bravely, yet such was the fury of the onset, and the superiority of numbers on the part of the assailants, that they were broken through in several places, and at these openings the savage multitude rushed in with irresistible fury. It soon was no longer a battle, but a massacre. Such of the Greeks as could escape saved themselves in the mountains; but above three thousand fell under the Mussulman scimitars; and ten thousand women and children, with thirty thousand head of cattle, were taken and publicly sold in the market-place of Salonica. Taking advantage of the consternation produced by this dreadful event, the victorious pacha advanced to Mount Athos, where the trembling monks, though placed in their almost inaccessible eyries, were too happy to accept the proffered capitulation, by which they saved their lives and property on payment of 250,000 piastres a-year (£20,000.)

47. To complete the picture of this memorable year, it only remains to notice the operations in Crete. The mountaineers there, albeit endowed by nature with mild and pacific constitutions, were all in arms in consequence of the dreadful exactions and cruelty of the Turks, and the latter had brought

49. Notwithstanding the determination of the Emperor Alexander to abstain from all interference with the Greek insurrection, it was inevitable that during the progress of the contest various points of dispute should arise between the two powers at St Petersburg and Constantinople. They were not long, accordingly, in showing themselves. M. Danesi, the banker

over large bodies of Asiatics to complete their destruction. The Sfakiotes, a hardy race, whose position in the hills had hitherto saved them in a great measure from the tyranny of the Ottomans, defeated them in an action at Soulo, near Canea, upon which the Turks massacred all the Christians in Candia, and seven hundred more in other towns in the island. All the bishops perished. The Sfakiotes, how-to the Russian embassy, was arrested ever, were not discouraged, but made several incursions into the plains, from whence they returned laden with the spoils of their oppressors to their mountains. Upon this, the Turks brought over ten thousand Asiatic janizaries, who penetrated into their fastnesses, and stormed Therissow, their principal stronghold, laying waste everything with fire and sword; but want of provisions soon obliged them to retire, and the Sfakiotes again resumed their incursions. The revolt upon this spread universally over the island, and the Turks were obliged to take refuge in Canea, where, towards the end of autumn, they suffered severely from dysentery and other diseases.

48. While the southern parts of the Ottoman dominions were thus the theatre of a frightful civil war, and the Turks, after many vicissitudes of fortune, were losing their hold of the richest and finest part of their territory, they were threatened with external danger both in the east and north scarcely less alarming. The Persians, deeming a rupture between Russia and the Porte inevitable, and probably secretly instigated by the agents of the Czar, declared war against Turkey in the beginning of August, and immediately invaded the pachalic of Bagdad with thirty thousand men. Although no great success attended their arms, yet it operated as an important diversion in favour of the Greeks, as it obliged the Sultan to employ an equal force in defence of his eastern dominions. Affairs also had become so threatening with Russia that an immediate rupture seemed inevitable, and the Turkish dominions, threatened alike in the south, the north, and the east, seemed doomed to destruction.

early in June, ostensibly for a debt of 300,000 piastres (£3000), but really for having furnished funds to the Greek insurgents; and notwithstanding the remonstrances of M. Strogonoff, the Russian ambassador, who reclaimed him as forming part of the embassy, sentenced to be beheaded, from which he only escaped by going into exile. Hardly was this subject of discord appeased when another and more serious one arose, in consequence of the Porte having issued an order that all neutral vessels passing the Dardanelles should be searched, and prohibiting the exportation of grain through the canal of the Bosphorus. These orders were vehemently opposed by the Russian minister, as interfering with the rights of the Russian merchants in the Black Sea; and as strongly maintained by the Sultan, as necessary to prevent succours being conveyed to the Greeks under the Russian flag, and within the acknowledged rights of a belligerent power. The execution of the Patri arch, and the frightful massacres in Constantinople and other chief towns of the empire, were next made the subject of well-founded complaints on the part of the Russian ambassador, to which the Divan replied by remonstrances founded on the asylum afforded at Odessa to the Greeks who had escaped from them, and the right of every government to repress rebellion among its subjects by every means in its power. M. Strogonoff next protested against the entry of the Turkish forces into the Principalities, which was entirely disregarded; declared that, as long as the Turkish Government continued, the Russians would never refuse an asylum to any Greek who might demand it; and that, if

the system of violence continued, he | the instant adoption of that severity; would break off all diplomatic inter- but the entire diplomatic body having course with the Porte. To all these protested against the recurrence to remonstrances the answer constantly that barbarous usage, the passports made was, that no foreign power had demanded were delivered to him, and a right to interfere between the Turk- he set sail, with all his suite, and sevish Government and its own subjects, eral Greek families who had taken reand that the insurrection could be fuge in the Russian embassy, for Odessubdued in no other way. sa on the last day of July.

50. These angry recriminations con- 51. After the Russian ambassador tinued through the whole of May and had taken his departure, the Sublime June; and at length, in the middle of Porte despatched a messenger to St July, matters came to such a point Petersburg with an answer to the Czar's that M. Strogonoff shut himself up in ultimatum, which was antedated 26th his palace at Buysekdere, and delivered July, the last day assigned for its rethe ultimatum of the Russian Govern- ception. In this state paper, which ment to the Porte, which was required was very ably drawn, the Sultan, to be accepted unconditionally within without disputing the truth of the eight days, failing which he was to take charges made against him-which, in his departure with his whole suite. truth, were so notorious that they The conditions exacted by Russia did could not be denied-contented himnot consist in any cession of fortresses self with throwing the destruction of or provinces, but in reparation for the the churches on the violence of the insults offered to the Greek religion, dregs of the people, who had been exexpiation for the murder of its Patri- cited to madness by the Greek insurarch, and the adoption of a more hu- rection, justified the execution of the mane system of warfare in the contest Patriarch by the alleged discovery of with its Christian subjects.* If these letters which implicated him in the terms were not acceded to within the insurrection in the Morea, vindicated prescribed time, the Porte was openly the entry of the Ottoman troops into menaced with the utmost hostility of the Principalities by the obvious neRussia, and the support of the Greeks cessity of extinguishing a dangerous by the forces of entire Christendom. rebellion, and the general arming of No answer was returned by the Divan the Mussulmans by the threatening to this menacing communication, and and undeniable danger of the Ottoman the eight days allowed having expired, empire; finally, the note stated that Baron Strogonoff applied for his pass-orders had been given for reconstructports. He was at first threatened with being sent to the Seven Towers, and the Asiatic hordes loudly demanded

*"Que les églises détruites ou pillées soient renouvelées sur le champ, et mises en état de servir à leur sainte destination; que S. H., en rendant à la religion Chrétienne ses prérogatives, en lui accordant la même protection que par le passé, en lui garantissant son inviolabilité à l'avenir, s'efforce de consoler l'Europe du supplice du Patriarche de Constantinople, et des profanations qui ont suivi sa mort; qu'une sage et équitable distinction s'établisse entre les auteurs des troubles, les hommes qui y prenaient part, et ceux que leur innocence doit mettre à l'abri de la sévérité du Divan; qu'à cet effet, on ouvre un avenir de paix et de tranquillité aux Grecs qui seront restés soumis, ou qui se soumettront, dans un délai donné; et qu'en tout état des choses, on se ménage les moyens de distinguer les innocens des coupables. Que si le Gouvernement Turc té

ing the churches which had been demolished, and promising, on the Greek refugees being delivered up, to execute moignait, contre toute attente, que c'est par suite d'un plan librement arrêté qu'il prend des mesures touchant lesquelles le Soussigné lui a déjà exposé l'opinion de son Auguste Maître, il ne resterait à l'Empereur qu'à déclarer, dès à présent, à la Sublime Porte, qu'elle se constitue en état d'hostilité ouverte contre le monde Chrétien, qu'elle légitime la défense des Grecs, qui dès-lors combattraient uniquement pour se soustraire à une perte inévitable; et que, vu le caractère de leur lutte, la Russie se trouverait dans la stricte obligation de leur offrir asile parce qu'ils seraient persécutés; protection, parce qu'elle en aurait le droit; assistance, conjointement avec toute la Chrétienté, parce qu'elle ne pourrait pas livrer ses frères de religion à la merci d'un aveugle fanatisme.' Note de M. le Baron STROGONOFF, July 18, 1821; Annuaire Historique, iv. 413, 414.

*

rigorously and faithfully the whole | the English ambassador, Lord Strang. treaties with the Cabinet of St Peters-ford, enjoyed at that period the highest burg. consideration with the Porte, and em52. According to the known usages ployed his great influence and abilities of European diplomacy, the departure to avert a rupture, and bring the of the Russian ambassador from Con- Divan back to sentiments of moderastantinople was tantamount to a de- tion, and a just appreciation of the claration of war between the two pow-difficulties with which they were surers; and consternation was universal rounded. In this praiseworthy atamong the Christian inhabitants that tempt he was cordially seconded by this would lead to a general massacre the ministers of France and Austria, of them, as it had done at Smyrna, and at length, by their united efforts, Salonica, and several other places. In a decree was obtained from the Porte effect, it was very near occurring, for commuting the punishment of Danesi the Asiatic troops, as soon as the de- into exile, taking off the embargo parture of the Russian embassy was which had been laid on Russian vesknown, began to parade the streets, sels, and promising an amnesty to and call on the people to rise and ex- such of the Greeks as should submit terminate the Christians without mer- within a short period. cy or distinction. Multitudes, appehending instant death, took refuge in the hotels of the ambassadors of the neutral powers; and fortunately

"Que tous les individus punis à la suite de l'insurrection, et surtout le Patriarche Grec et autres prélats, n'avaient subi que la

peine qu'ils avaient méritée d'après le droit que tout Gouvernement a de faire arrêter et punir sans miséricorde, sans distinction de religion ou de condition, de pareils malfaiteurs, afin de maintenir le bon ordre dans ses

etats et parmi le peuple.

"Que les insultes faites à quelques églises Grecques n'étaient que des désordres commis par des réprouvés de la lie du peuple.

"Que l'adoption de la vie des camps au lieu de celle des villes, et l'armement général de la nation Mussulmane, n'étaient que des nesures indispensables pour le maintien du bon ordre intérieur, et ne regardait en rien les puissances amies ni les divers classes des Rayahs non coupables.

Que les instructions données au commandant des troupes envoyées par la Porte en Valachie et Moldavie n'avaient d'autre but les que de réduire les rebelles et d'en purger provinces, dont on ne voulait ni changer l'ordre ni abolir les privilèges.

"Qu'aussitôt que la tranquillité aurait été rétablie, que le ci-devant Prince de Moldavie, Michel Suzzo, et ses adhérens, qui se sont évadés avec lui, ainsi que ceux des scélérats qui auront pu s'enfuir sur le territoire Russe ou Autrichien, auraient été remis au Gouvernement Turc, ou bien publiquement punis sur les lieux mêmes où ils ont été saisis, la Sublime Porte procéderait immédiatement à l'installation des Hospodars, et mettrait le plus grand soin à faire observer les anciennes conventions et à maintenir les privilèges des deux provinces comme dans le passé."-Réponse du Divan à l'Ultimatum de M. le Baron STROGONOFF, July 26, 1821; Annuaire Historique, iv. 656, 660, Appendix.

53. It was not so easy a matter, however, to appease the violence of the people as to bring back the Divan to sentiments of moderation; and the fermentation was such at Constantinople, all the autumn and winter, that a general massacre was hourly expected. Bands of Asiatics, worked up to the last point of religious fanaticism and savage fury, were continually traversing the streets, singing exciting songs, and calling on the faithful to rise and complete the destruction of the infidels. To such a pitch did the disorders arise that the janizaries openly demanded the head of the new favourite, Halal-Effendi, who was thought to be too much inclined to moderate measures, and even of Abdul-Ahmed, the son of the Sultan, and sole heir of the empire. The popular fury was only appeased by the daily sight of a number of Christians hung in the streets, and a long row of heads displayed every morning at the gates of the Seraglio. At length Lord Strangford prevailed on the Divan to abate somewhat of their unbending attitude, and open the door, if not to accommodation, at least to renewed negotiations, by an ultimatum on their part, in which they consented to adjourn the demand for the surrender of the refugees. But they refused to withdraw their forces from the Principalities till the rebellion was entirely put down, and claimed the right then to maintain such troops

in them as might be deemed necessary | which could at that period be adopted to maintain tranquillity.

-was very similar to that of the Di54. The commencement of the year rectory which for a few years governed 1822 was signalised by an event of no France: civil and religious liberty, ordinary importance in this contest: security to person and property, equal the formation of a regular government, eligibility to office, the independence and the proclamation of national in- of the judicial body, were duly prodependence in Greece. During the vided for. The supreme legislative month of November preceding, a con- power was vested in a senate elected gress of chiefs and deputies assembled by the people, conjointly with an exefrom all parts of Greece in Argos, cutive council appointed by the senate. which afterwards transferred its sit- This council, in whom the entire directings to Epidaurus, and there a con- tion of affairs was vested, consisted of stitution was drawn up, and. the na- five members; it declared peace and tional INDEPENDENCE PROCLAIMED. war, and was invested with the supreme The act proclaiming it, signed by six-direction of affairs; but its members ty-seven members of the congress, is were elected only for a year, and were remarkable as containing a forcible and amenable to the senate for misconduct not exaggerated statement of the dread-in duty. Prince Mavrocordato was ful nature of the oppression under which the nation had laboured, the reasons which had induced or rather compelled them to take up arms, and the grand object of national independence for which they contended,-very different from the democratic dreams which at the same time were agitating the states of western Europe.* The constitution proclaimed which, in default of heirs of the old Byzantine emperors, was perhaps the only one

* "La Nation Grecque prend le ciel et la terre à témoin que, malgré le joug affreux

des Ottomans, que la menaçait de son dépé

rissement, elle existe encore. Pressée par les mesures aussi iniques que destructives, que ces tyrans féroces, après avoir violé leurs capitulations ainsi que tout esprit d'équité, rendaient de plus en plus oppressives, et qui ne tendaient à rien moins qu'à l'anéantissement entier du peuple soumis, elle s'était trouvée dans la nécessité absolue de courir aux armes, pour mettre à l'abri sa propre conservation. Après avoir repoussé la violence par le seul courage de ses enfans, elle déclare aujourd'hui devant Dieu et devant les hommes, par l'organe de ses représentans légitimes, réunis dans ce congrès national convoqué par le peuple, son Indépendance Poli

tique

unanimously elected the first presi dent; the council immediately entered upon the discharge of its duties; and the congress, having accomplished its task of forming a constitution, declared itself dissolved. The scat of government was soon after transferred to Corinth, the citadel of which had just capitulated. It is easy to see the ideas of the French Revolution here germinating in the minds of a nation struggling for existence: and certainly its authors seem to have been thinking more of the rights of man than of averting the sabres of the Osmanlis. Yet it is impossible to withhold a tribute of admiration from the brave men who, when their chief fortresses were still in the hands of the enemy, still reeking with the blood of their best and bravest citizens, and when Mohammedan fanaticism was roused to the highest pitch for their destruction, ventured, with the resources of seven hundred thousand men, to throw down the gauntlet to a power possessing thirty millions, and before which all Christendom had so often trembled.

"Loin d'être fondée sur des principes de démagogie et de rébellion, loin d'avoir pour 55. The Christian cause, thus irremotifs les intérêts particuliers de quelques vocably engaged, sustained, however, individus, cette guerre est une guerre na- a grievous blow in the early part of tionale et sacrée, elle n'a pour but que la restauration de la nation et sa réintégration dans les droits de propriété, d'homme, et de vie, droits qui sont le partage des peuples policés nos voisins, mais qui étaient arrachés aux Grecs par une puissance spoliatrice."— Déclaration d'Indépendance, Epidaure, Jan. 27, 1822; Ann. Hist., iv. 679, Appendix.

this year by the destruction of Ali Pacha, who, although still a Mohammedan, and distrusted alike by the Greeks and Souliotes, had hitherto operated as a most important diversion, by retaining so large a portion of