while the Commissioner of the district was overburdened with clerical work, and unable to supervise effectively his subordinates. A royal arrêté of March 28, 1912, therefore increased the number of districts to twenty-two (Lower Congo, Middle Congo, Lake Leopold II, Equator, Lulonga, Bangala, Ubangi, Lower Uele, Upper Uele, Aruwimi, Stanleyville, Lowa, Ituri, Manyema, Kivu, Sankuru, Kasai, Kwango, Lomami, Tanganyika-Moero, Upper Luapula and Lulua) and substituted for the old subdivisions that of the territory. At the same time the powers of the Governor-General were increased by authorizing him to select the capital of each territory and to assign the personnel, whereas formerly only the heads of postes were designated by him.1

The Commissioner of the district is named by the King and designated by the Minister of the Colonies. He represents the Government and carries out the laws and orders which he receives from the Governor-General. His power was formerly limited by the fact that the heads of the secteurs and postes were not designated by him, but he now selects from the personnel allotted by the Governor-General the territorial administrators and agents for the territories in his district. He is in control of the police, and can order military expeditions.1 He accords investiture to native chiefs, and, when necessary, names and recalls them.5 He has the aid of a Superior Assistant in his work. The territorial administrators are his servants: they have been expressly deprived by a royal arrêté of June 25, 1912, of the right to order military expeditions or convert police measures into such expeditions, to remove villages, and to forbid or subject to conditions in a defined area the recruitment of workers. The territorial agents rank as clerks and assist in this capacity the administrators."

It would, of course, be impossible to administer the country

1 Arrêté of March 28, 1912, Art. 3.

2 Decree of October 10, 1894, Art. 3.

3 Ibid. Art. 5.

Decree of June 3, 1906; he is an officer of judicial police (Decree of April 30, 1887, and Ordinance of April 22, 1899).

5 Decree of May 2, 1910.

6

Royal arrêté of June 25, 1912.

directly by Europeans, and the essential task of the Commissioner and his subordinates is to maintain effective relations with the native tribes. The State administration, despite the decrees of October 6, 1891, and June 3, 1906, left this task unaccomplished, though some 450 chiefs had nominally been recognized, and effective organization dates from a decree of May 2, 1910. Under it the Commissioner designates in the district the different chiefdoms, including, if necessary, subchiefdoms, each of which must be dependent on a territory. He recognizes the customary chief, or, if no such chief exists, selects one after consulting the tribe: in case of misconduct he can remove the chief and substitute another. All the natives must be registered in chiefdoms, but those working for the Government or Europeans are not subjected to the control of the chief. Up to the end of 1911 over 2,700 chiefs had been formally recognized, and the number has since been raised to over 6,000, embracing the greater part of the territory. The chiefs are sworn servants of the State, but, though they owe obedience to its officers, the chief is not subordinated to the territorial administrator, and his authority is recognized and limited, but not created, by the State. His power is that which the tribal custom allots to him, and it must be exercised in the customary manner, for instance, with the aid of a Council if the local practice so demands. It is, however, limited by the requirement that it must not be contrary to public order, or contravene laws or regulations intended to take the place of customary rules. The chief even within his legitimate sphere of action is subject to the control of the Commissioner, and the territorial administrator acting for him, but the policy of the Government, which desires to make use of the chiefs as means of government, tends to restrict such control to cases of action opposed to public order, the general interests of the colony or civilization, or the prestige of the Government. The decree also ascribes to the chief definite

1 He is paid a monthly salary, half, however, being retained until the end of the year; the Commissioner may punish him by withholding pay up to three months.

duties towards the State: he is required to assist in policing work, in the administration of justice, in the execution of sanitary measures, and in the performance of public works, and for these purposes may require monthly two days or sixteen hours' work from his people, or even longer in case of urgent works for the public safety or health. The chief is also employed in the collection of taxes, a rather dangerous power, and his right in effect to prevent the migration of his subjects has actually been abused. As intermediaries between him and the European officials are the messengers,1 who occupy a delicate position, which is unquestionably susceptible of misuse. The Commissioner may exercise measures of constraint on a disobedient chief by the use of military force.

Undoubtedly the system as developed is not without defects the rigid rule which insists on recognizing only individual chiefs and in dividing the whole country into definite chiefdoms and subchiefdoms accords badly enough with those districts where organized chiefdoms have never existed, and the parallel of Nigeria, where for such tribes. councils 2 have been created in lieu of chiefdoms, suggests an alternative more likely to be fruitful in results. Nor can it be denied that the presence of matriculated natives in the chiefdoms subject to the written law must cause difficulties. Unhappily also there is little proof that the chiefs are likely to prove equal to their tasks, and the system seems likely to degenerate into a mere replica of the old system of zone and secteur with only the substitution of a chief as the head official.3

4

The Civil Service of the colony is recruited by the Minister of the Colonies save in the case of minor offices filled by the Governor-General. Candidates selected are given a summary training at the Colonial School created by

Their badge of office is a plaque of aluminium; the chiefs wear a medal of nickel.

3

2 Keith, West Africa, pp. 193, 194.

Lannoy, L'Organisation coloniale belge, pp. 90–2.

See arrêtés of June 20, 1910, and March 27, 1912.

an arrêté of September 30, 1910, either in the upper or lower division according to the purpose for which they are destined: those for judicial posts are trained in a special section, but in all cases the period is short. Thereafter they serve for two years on probation, and if confirmed in their posts for a period making, with the probationary period, ten years in all, deducting periods of leave. They are entitled to six months' leave after two years' service, and are remunerated at reasonable, if moderate, rates.1 Fifteen per cent. of their pay is withheld until retirement, or in case of death paid to their relatives, a minimum amount, however, being always allotted. After ten years' service an officer may retire on pension, or on a reduced pension after four years' service if incapacitated by ill-health. If re-engaged he draws his pension and salary and earns a second pension. The formal appointment of the higher officers is made by the King, of others by the Minister or the Governor-General, who may dismiss these officers whom they have power to appoint: the Governor-General or Minister may place them en disponibilité, or inflict minor penalties. The increase of salaries and the shortening of the tour of service have greatly improved the position of the service, but it remains difficult to secure suitable candidates for the Congo. Free passages, quarters, and medical treatment are accorded, but the practice of the State to supply food has been abandoned.2

3

The Belgian Constitution as amended in 1893 forbids the employment under compulsion of any Belgian in the armed force of the State, and the Charter adds a prohibition on even the voluntary enlistment of any serving soldier. As organized by the State, and as continued in the first instance by Belgium, the force performed both military and police duties, under the supreme control of a commandant. The men are secured by voluntary recruitment, and by com

1 From 6,000 to 50,000 francs.

2 No member of the Belgian Parliament may be appointed an official below the rank of Vice-Governor-General until a year has elapsed from the cessation of his mandate (Charter, Art. 32).

3 Art. 34.

pulsory levy in numbers determined annually by a decree,1 the quota being fixed in 1913 at 3,750. The period of service is seven years with five in the reserve. By a decree of April 19, 1907, the total number of companies was fixed at twenty-three with a strength of about 14,000, armed as infantry and scattered throughout the country in bodies fifty strong, each commanded as far as possible by a European. The officers are all European, for the main part from the Belgian army, seconded for periods of service." In 1910 a recommendation was made that the functions of military and police were inconsistent, and this recommendation has now been carried into effect by the division of the force into the army proper, consisting of some 12,000 men fully organized for war purposes, and a police force about 6,000 strong.

1 See Charter, Art. 16; decree of July 30, 1891: in case of necessity all servants of the State, save judicial officers, may be called upon to serve; decree of November 26, 1900, Art. 19.

2 Arrêté of January 18, 1898. Discipline rests on a decree of July 31, 1912.

3 Charter, Art. 33. Their position depends on an arrêté of March 27, 1912, and a decree of June 25, 1912. All the officers are named and dismissed by the King; State officials by the Minister for the Colonies or the Governor-General. Of the sub-officers some are European, some native. In 1918 there were 355 white officers and sub-officers.