were made punishable by fine or imprisonment. In this way Presbyterianism had commenced the battle of civil and religious liberty, achieved the overthrow of Episcopacy, and established itself in the room of the gorgeous church which it had supplanted. But in a great national revolution it frequently happens, that those by whom it has been effected are succeeded by actors still more violent and impetuous, by whom the change is pushed to an extreme, and the country pre

Presbyterianism in England, of which a very few years witnessed the triumph and the downfall. In the great strife between the two rival parties, the political moderation of the Presbyterians was out of season, and in the question which was narrowed to despotism or a republic, their views of a limited monarchy, which were afterwards to form the base of the British constitution, were regarded as pusillanimous and tame. More thorough-going men and fiercer ex

condign punishment. But the right of persecuting Roman Catholics, and especially their priests and every sect opposed to Presbyterianism, and sub- the Jesuits, were still exposed to persecution, but duing their recusancy by the sword, was opposed it was as the friends of a foreign ecclesiastical desin the Westminster Assembly by the Indepen- potism; and the Protestant bishops and Episcopal dents and Erastians, and decisively rejected by clergy were closely watched, and harshly treated, the parliament. As yet, the great principle of as the adherents of monarchical rule. Atheism toleration was but beginning to dawn upon the was punished, and all persons were required to Christian world, and the sect that had been per- attend some place of worship. Every outrage secuted to-day were as ready to become the per- against religion was also punished, such as profansecutors of to-morrow, when their own hour had ity, vice, blasphemy, and the holding of opinions arrived. From this general charge, indeed, the that tended to dissolve society; and trading, travelIndependents were beginning to be an honour-ling, or frequenting of taverns on the Sabbath, able exception; and in the notices of Baillie, who was one of the commissioners to the assembly from the Church of Scotland, we find how greatly the Presbyterians were annoyed by this new phase of Christian liberality. "While Cromwell is here," he writes on one occasion, "the House of Commons, without the least advertisements to any of us, or of the assembly, passes an order that the grand committee of both houses, assembly and us [the Scottish Presbyterians], shall consider of the means to unite us and the Indepen-pared for a reaction. And such was the fate of dents; or, if that be found impossible, to see how they may be tolerated. This has much affected us. These men have retarded the assembly these twelve long months." And again: "But their greatest plot, wherewith we are wrestling, is an order of the House of Commons, contrived by Mr. Solicitor (Oliver St. John) and Mr. Marshall, which they got stolen through to the committee of lords, commons, and divines, which treated with us to consider of differences in point of church government which were among the mem-tremes were in greater accordance with the spirit bers of the assembly, if they might be agreed; of the age and the character of the struggle, and or if not, how far tender consciences might be these accordingly were found in the Indepenborne with, which could not come up to the com- dents, and the wild sects which Independency mon rule to be established, that so the proceedings had produced. It was by the army and its of the assembly might not be retarded. This matchless leader that Presbytery as well as moorder presently gave us the alarm; we saw it was narchy was overthrown; and the change of the for a toleration of the Independents, by act of army from Presbyterian to Independent can be parliament, before the Presbytery or any com- easily traced in the history of the day. At first, mon rule were established." In another passage the soldiers were men of the Covenant, and they Baillie acknowledges the liberal forbearance of fought merely for a rational limitation of the these Independents, but only to condemn it: kingly power, not its absolute extinction. Each "They plead," he writes, "for a toleration to other regiment also had its Presbyterian chaplain, who sects, as well as to themselves; and with much marched to the field with his parishioners. But ado could we get them to propose what they de-after the battle of Edgehill and the re-modelling sired to [for] themselves. At last they did give of the army, when wild sectaries were poured us a paper requiring expressly a full toleration into the ranks and more decisive measures adoptof congregations, in their way everywhere sepa-ed, these clergymen, finding themselves out of rate from ours." Thus, though the Presbyterian church government was established, it was not without a long struggle, and with it was established what it had so zealously opposed-the toleration of every class of Nonconformists. Even where exceptions were made, it was rather in reference to the political perversity, than the religicus errors of those who were excepted. The

place, retired to their peaceful cures. "This fatal accident," the historian of Puritanism observes, "proved the ruin of the cause in which the parliament were engaged; for the army being destitute of chaplains, who might have restrained the irregularities of their zeal, the officers set up for preachers in their several regiments, depending upon a kind of miraculous assistance of the

Divine Spirit, without any study or preparation; sanctification in those whom they examined, and and when their imaginations were heated, they gave vent to the most crude and undigested abcurdities. Nor did the evil rest there; for, from preaching at the head of their regiments, they took possession of the country pulpits where they were quartered, till at length they spread the infection over the whole nation, and brought the regular ministry into contempt." The military successes of such an army soon turned the scale in the House of Commons, where the Independents acquired a large majority; and as a political power, Presbyterianism may be said to have terminated its existence in England with the execution of the king.

But although the triumph of Independency had been so signal, its reign was brief. Its history, however, is so fully impersonated in that of the Commonwealth, that the subject may be wound up with a few brief notices. Toleration was the order of the day during the protectorate; and this principle was the more easily observed, that no exclusively established church existed. In the present state of things, indeed, such an establishment would have been impossible, where the superior numbers and wealth of the Presbyterians were counterpoised by the military strength and political influence of the Independents. The parish churches therefore throughout England, although occupied in greatest measure by Presbyterian incumbents, were also, in many cases, held by Independent ministers, or even by sectaries of a less orderly description, while several were still retained by their old Episcopal possessors. Even gifted laymen, who were supposed either by themselves or others to possess in an especial degree the powers requisite for teachers of religion, found the pulpits open to their entrance. The evils of this state of things, however, were so obvious, that in March, 1653, Cromwell appointed a "Board of Triers," consisting of thirtyeight members, and composed of Presbyterians, Independents, and Baptists, to limit the assumption and correct the abuses of the ministerial office, by testing the qualifications of those who held it. This board continued in office until the death of Cromwell, when it was annihilated at the Restoration; and although much ridicule was afterwards thrown upon the institution, yet the services of these triers were of substantial and lasting benefit. This we learn from the impartial testimony of Baxter, who disowned their commission, and was regarded by them as an enemy. "The truth is," he says, "that though their authority is null, and though some few over-busy and over-rigid Independents among them were too severe against all that were Arminians, and too particular in inquiring after evidences of

1 Nea!, ii. 356.

somewhat too lax in their admission of unlearned and erroneous men that favoured Antinomianism or Anabaptism, yet, to give them their due, they did abundance of good to the church. They saved many a congregation from ignorant, ungodly, drunken teachers—the sort of men that intended no more in the ministry than to say a sermon as readers say their common prayers, and to patch up a few words together to talk the people asleep with on Sunday, and all the rest of the week to go with them to the ale-house, and harden them in their sin; and that sort of ministers that either preached against a holy life, or preached as men that never were acquainted with it. All those who used the ministry but as a common trade to live by were never likely to convert a soul: all these they usually rejected; and in their stead they admitted any that were able, serious preachers, and lived a godly life, of what tolerable opinion soever they were. So that, though there were many of them somewhat partial for the Independents, Separatists, Fifth Monarchy Men, and Anabaptists, and against the Prelatists and Arminians, so great was the benefit above the hurt which they brought to the church, that many thousands of souls blessed God for the faithful ministers whom they let in, and grieved when the Prelatists afterwards cast them out again.”

Hitherto we have confined our notice chiefly to the Presbyterians, and their rivals the Indepen dents, the two leading forms in which the English Puritanism was manifested when the great struggle for civil and religious liberty had commenced. It was impossible, however, when the spirit of inquiry was abroad, that it would content itself with such limitations; and although the sectaries were numerous, they were also comparatively little known, until the re-modelling of the army called them from obscurity, and the universal toleration gave them full liberty of action. One of the wonders of the age was, that an army composed of such strange and discor dant elements, could be so coherently and firmly united; that preaching generals and praying or expounding captains could be such wise effective leaders, and brave chivalrous warriors; and that such mystagogues as Vane, Cromwell, and others, whose religious views were apparently incomprehensible, and their rhapsodies unintelligible even by themselves, should yet have seen so clearly, and acted so wisely and calmly, when great political interests were at stake. But the history of the sectarianism of the period is too important as well as too multifarious for a passing notice, and may therefore be deferred to the period of the Restoration, in which it still continued in active exercise.

2 Reliquia Bazteriana: London, 1696

CHAPTER XIX.-HISTORY OF SOCIETY.

FROM THE ACCESSION OF JAMES I. (A.D. 1603), TO THE RESTORATION (A.D. 1660).

Change produced in England by the Reformation-Rise of Puritanism-Twofold character of English society at this period through religious diversities-Effects of Puritanism upon the military spirit-Contrast between the Puritan and royalist soldiers at the close of the Civil war-Slow progress of English commerce-Trading companies of the period-Banking-Postage and post-offices-Agriculture-Rural life-Rapid increase of the London population-Causes of the increase-Attempts to check it-Growth of London-Population of its different districts-Great resort of St. Paul's Walk-Other places of public concourse-Places of private assignation and festivity-Coarseness and discomfort of metropolitan life-Hackney coaches-Complaints against them-Fashionable life in London-Its style illustrated by Lady Compton's letter-Attendants and retinues of noble families-Dress-Costume of gentlemen-Extravagant dresses of the royal favouritesLove-locks-Beards-Ornaments-Military foppery-Patches introduced by military pretenders-Coxcombry -Contrast to the prevalent fashions in the dress and manners of the Puritans-Effects of London fashions on the rural gentry-Receipt for converting a country squire into a town gentleman-The mercantile community -Their manners and mode of living-Their martial spirit at the commencement of the Civil war-Alsatians and bullies-Highwaymen of the period-London thieves and cut-purses--Onerous duties of the London magistrates-Domestic life of the period-Cookery-Increase of intemperance in drinking-A state banquet and masque of James I. and the King of Denmark--Sports of the period-Aversion of King James to military sports-Masques-Active sports-London ainusements-Games of the lower orders-Cromwell's encouragement of manly sports-Commencement of coach-driving as an English amusement-Introduction of the regular drama into England-London play-houses-Their rude and naked condition-Their days and hours for meeting-A play-house audience of the period-Criticism of the theatre and mode of its expression-EducationStudy of philosophy added to that of languages-Cultivation of the fine arts promoted by Charles I.-Military exercises a part of education-Education finished by travelling-Restrictions imposed on English touristsProgress of the national literature-Dramatic poetry-Early dramatic writers-Marlow-Shakspeare-Chief events in his life-The Mermaid Club-Ben Jonson-Beaumont and Fletcher-Massinger-Webster-Heywood -The stage suppressed by the Puritans-Puritan poets-Cavalier poets-Literary and scientific men of the period-Eminent churchmen-Distinguished Scotchmen of the period-Sir William Drummond-Napier of Merchiston-David Calderwood-Robert Baillie-Alexander Henderson, &c.

S

S we have already seen, the ad- | try, feudal tyranny, and regal oppression, were vent of the Reformation, which so all successively overtaken by the irresistible ongreatly changed the political and set; and each in turn was compelled to yield, moral aspect of Europe, had an or submit to be crushed and exterminated. It especially powerful effect upon the needed, indeed, no peculiarly prophetic sagacity condition of England. There it to foresee such a consequence, let the teachers, found a congenial soil, and soon took root and legislators, and rulers of the nation be what they flourished. The character of the people—so re- might, or act as they pleased. The first step in flective and stable-so intrepid in investigation this great march of emancipation was the reand so eager for progress--was better adapted jection of Peter's-pence; the last, that of shipfor the doctrines of Luther and the Reformers money; and the latter act was nothing more than than even the countries in which they had ori- a natural consequence of the former. The king ginated; and hence England quickly became, as might easily have guessed that he scarcely could it has ever since continued to be, beyond all succeed where even a pontiff had failed. others, a Protestant country. In such a condition, something more than merely the religious faith of the people was certain to be changed and improved. The ardent spirit of inquiry, now fully aroused, instead of confining itself to theological investigations, advanced into the principles of government, law, literature, and social progress; and in each of these departments the effete or the time-honoured corruptions of past ages, were assailed by the same mighty outburst that had shaken the seven-hilled City to its foundation, and swept its dominion from our island. Monastic superstition, medieval pedan

The most important episode in this general progress is formed by the history of English Puritanism. At the commencement of the Reformation in England, the royal power that would have been inadequate to arrest the movement, more wisely resolved to head it, and both Henry VIII. and his illustrious daughter stood forth as the crowned and anointed champions of Protestantism. This support, however, was not to be vouchsafed for nought, and, accordingly, in formulating the new Protestant church in England, the reforming sovereigns took care of their own interests by moulding it into a monarchy of which

themselves, instead of the deposed pontiff, should warlike weapons had hitherto been strangers, and be the head. In accomplishing this purpose, therefore, the old polity and form were as much as possible retained, and the king continued to govern through a hierarchy of his own creation, and dependent upon his favour. But this check the new spirit of inquiry was little disposed to tolerate; it was regarded both as a stopping-short at half measures and a sinful compromise; and those who sought a full, instead of a partial reformation, demanded the enfranchisement of the church from kings as well as popes, and the abolition of the ceremonial as well as the creed of Rome. The church was to be a theocracy, of which its Divine Head was to be the only ruler, and His revealed will the only statute-book and directory. Such was the demand of those who were derisively called Puritans, and whose appearance was altogether, or all but coeval with the origin of the Anglican church. In spite of contempt, and even of persecution, they continued to increase in numbers and consequence, so that during the present period English society was divided into two parties, differing not only in certain points of religious belief, but in ritual and form of worship, in literary and intellectual character, even in modes of daily life, style of conversation, domestic usages, dress, and demeanour. Thus England, during the reigns of James I. and his immediate successors, presented two different forms of national life, character, and customs, as if they had belonged to two entirely different and even hostile races. It was impossible that such antagonistic divisions of society could long go onward side by side; a separation, and finally a hostile collision, were inevitable, and these upon questions not only of religious but also of civil liberty. When the war commenced, it was then that the opposite character of the two parties was brought out into strong relief, and the question placed at issue as to which of them was worthiest and fittest to predominate. The trial and its result have already been fully detailed.

When England was thus converted into one great battle-field of civil warfare, during which the characters of men were brought out and their powers exerted to the uttermost, it is interesting to mark the hostile elements which were thus arrayed against each other for the destruction or regeneration of a country already great and influential; and which, according to the issue, was likely to attain the first rank, or sink into a mere third or fourth-rate nation. All, at first, boded the utter suppression of the Puritans, who were worsted in every encounter. Their ranks were chiefly composed of devout men who had been wont to put little faith in an arm of flesh, and industrious shopkeepers and artisans, to whom

military discipline unknown; while upon the other side was all the highborn spirit and chivalry of the land, combined with the military experience that had been acquired in foreign travel and adventure. This difference, which Cromwell's sagacity detected at a glance, he thus explained in a letter to his kinsman, Hampden:"Your troops," he said, "are most of them decayed serving-men and tapsters, and such kind of fellows; the king's forces are composed of gentlemen's younger sons and persons of good quality; and do you think that the mean spirits of such base and low fellows as ours will ever be able to encounter gentlemen that have honour, and courage, and resolution in them? You must get men of spirit; and take it not ill that I say, of a spirit that is likely to go as far as gentlemen will go, or else I am sure you will still be beaten, as you have hitherto been, in every encounter." Cromwell, who thus detected the evil, knew not only the remedy, but the right way of applying it. He could not convert the tapsters into chivalrous knights, or the decayed serving-men into gentlemen, but he could do more; he could kindle within them that religious Puritan enthusiasm that would carry them as far, or even farther, than any earthly inspiration, where a brave deed was to be done that a righteous cause might be established. On this principle he acted, and his regiment of Ironsides were at once the bravest and the most devout soldiers that ever England had produced. The same principle became general throughout the parliamentary army, and the enthusiastic elevated spirit of its soldiery was soon more than a match for the utmost of Cavalier loyalty, devotedness, and military daring. And more interesting still was the contrast afforded by the two parties when the war was ended. The high-born Cavalier who, during the trying changes of the campaign, had degenerated into a reckless desperado, careful of nothing but good quarters, pay, and plunder, was fain to sink into a mere hanger-on or led-captain, if he did not become a soldier of fortune, or even a highwayman. But the soldiers of the Commonwealth, after having attained the highest renown in arms, and made the world ring with their exploits, contentedly retired to their farms or their shops, and resumed their original calling and its peaceful spirit as if no interruption had occurred. They had gone forth under a higher call than that of military glory, and accomplished a righteous task whose approval was better than anything which fame could bestow. Such a spirit, even when the reaction came by which royalty was restored, was not to be tampered with; but the Stuarts forgot the lesson, and full dearly abode the penalty. Enlightened and improved by past experi

ence, Puritanism once more stepped forward to | Hamburg, Rotterdam, and several towns in the work out the great problem of civil and religious Netherlands, chiefly with English cloth, and imliberty, upon which it had been employed for ported the principal commodities of Netherland nearly two centuries; and the result was the establishment of a new order of things under a tolerant church and a limited monarchy.