processions and of the litanies into the English adherents in the towns than in the rural distongue. An order for the use of these English prayers was sent to Archbishop Cranmer by Henry, in June, 1544, immediately before Henry crossed the seas on his last expedition to Boulogne. This gave some hope to the Protestants that the king, as Burnet expresses it, "was again opening his ears to notions for reformation, to which they had been shut now about six years;" but they were immediately shut again as hard

The first year of the reign of Edward VI. saw the fabric of the ancient system completely undermined, and the foundations laid of a church Protestant in its doctrines and forms of worship. | The parliament which met in the beginning of November, 1547, repealed the statute of the Six Articles, and also all the old acts against what was called heresy, and moreover began the work of reconstruction as well as of demolition, by directing, that henceforth the sacrament should be administered to the people in both kinds.

of the Reformation, was perhaps scarcely greater every Sunday and holiday the priest should read than among the lower and middle classes; but at matins one chapter out of the Old Testament here, too, there was enlisted on that side all that in English, and at even-song another out of the was most energetic and aspiring in the body of New. It was ordered that the people should be the nobility and gentry, many of whom had taught to beware of the superstitions of sprinkalready profited largely by the spoliation of the ling their beds with holy water, of ringing of church, while many more looked for similar ad- bells, and of using blessed candles for driving vantages from the same source. away devils; but at the same time not to despise any of the ceremonies not yet abrogated. On the subject of images it was directed that the curates should take down such as they knew were abused by pilgrimages or offerings to them, but that they should not be touched by private persons. An expectation, however, that much greater changes were at hand universally prevailed in the public mind. In some cases the people, impatient of the apparent inaction of the government, took the work of reform into their own hands. The department in which they proceeded to exert themselves was, as usual, that of throwing down images, shrines, and other decorations—a species of exploit which other feelings as well as a pious zeal help to make popular. Gardiner complained of these outrages in warm terms to the council, but little attention was paid to him. Meanwhile the subject of images, and also several of the other great controverted questions, were taken up in their public discourses by the preachers on both sides. Dr. Ridley, already designed for the bishopric of Rochester, seems to have begun this course, throwing the whole kingdom into a ferment by a Lent sermon which he preached against both images and holy water. The late order, too, for the removal of such images as had been abused to superstitious purposes produced a world of contention, each parish being rent asunder by a debate as to whether its favourite images had been thus abused or not. At last another order was issued in February, 1548, for the removal of all images; and this seems to have put an end to the excitement, which, in some places, had assumed a very threatening appearance.

Of the other proceedings that were taken this year in the same direction, the most important | was the preparation by Cranmer, or at least under his direction, of certain homilies or sermons to be read to their congregations by such incumbents of parishes as might not be qualified to compose discourses of their own. To the general imitation of these printed discourses by the clergy, Bishop Burnet attributes the introduction of the practice of preachers reading their sermons, the custom formerly having been for them to deliver unwritten or extemporaneous declamations. The homilies now prepared by Cranmer were twelve in number, and, when printed, were introduced by a preface in the name of the king, enjoining them to be read in all churches every Sunday by such priests as could not preach. According to Strype, two editions of the book were printed by Grafton this same year. "But it is strange," observes this writer, "to consider how anything, be it never so beneficial and innocent, oftentimes gives offence. For a great many, both of the laity as well as the clergy, could not digest these homilies; and therefore, sometimes, when they were read in the church, if the parishioners liked them not, there would be such talking and bab-by a committee of bishops and other divines apbling in the church that nothing could be heard." It is alleged also, that from the illiterate character of the rural clergy, these homilies were often read so imperfectly and incorrectly as to be scarcely worth hearing.

As yet, however, very little alteration had been made in the forms of public worship. The injunctions issued by Cranmer and the protector to the visitors whom they sent out over the kingdom, soon after the commencement of the new reign, were extremely moderate and cautious. Almost the only innovation that was ordered in Divine service was, that at high mass the epistle and gospel should be read in English; and that

A few weeks after was published a new office for the communion, which had been drawn up

pointed to revise all the offices of the church. In this, however, the office of the mass was still left as before. The cup, of course, in conformity with the late act, was directed to be given to the laity as well as to the clergy. An important innovation was made also in regard to confession: it was enjoined that such as desired to make auricular confession should not censure those who were satisfied with a general confession to God; and that, on the other hand, those who used only confession to God and the church, should not be offended with such as made auricular confession to a priest.

Before Midsummer the same commission had

completed the preparation of a new general Pub- | by the fathers of the English Reformation. We lic Office, or Book of Common Prayer, in the room shall, therefore, state its most remarkable proviof the ancient Latin Mass Book. In proceeding to this task they began by collecting and examining all the various forms of the Mass Book that had been wont to be used in different parts of the kingdom. The new book contained very little that was not in the old one; but was principally distinguished from it by its omission of many forms that were held to be superstitious, and by its being throughout in English. The chief addition was the Litany, which was the same that is still in use, except only that it contained originally a petition for deliverance from the Bishop of Rome, which was struck out in the reign of Elizabeth.

sions. It began by declaring that the denial of the Christian religion should be punishable with death and the loss of goods. No capital punishment was expressly denounced against heresy; but obstinate heretics were to be declared infamous, incapable of public trust, of being witnesses in any court, of making a will, or, finally, of deriving any benefit whatever from the lawa condemnation which would seem to be very nearly equivalent to putting them to death at once. Blasphemy was made punishable in the same way with obstinate heresy.

The reign of Edward VI., in the course of which the Protestant doctrines and worship were In the session of parliament which began in thus gradually, but, in the end, completely estabNovember this year, the new "Book of Common lished, must have very considerably slackened the Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments, hold of the ancient religion upon the popular and other rites and ceremonies of the church, mind. But we believe, after all, that it was the after the use of the Church of England," was reign of Mary, much more than that of Edward, ordered to be used by all ministers in the celebra- | which really made England a Protestant countion of Divine service. In this session of parlia- try. Mary's cause was at first supported against ment, also, acts were passed reviving the old law her unfortunate Protestant rival by the bulk of on the subject of days of abstinence from flesh, the population in all parts of the kingdom; and, and repealing all laws against the marriage of although it is certain that many of those who so priests. took her part were actuated by other principles The complete exposition and settlement, by and motives than their attachment to Popery, it authority, of the doctrines of the church, how-is hardly to be believed that so general an enthuever, still remained to be effected. "Many," says siasm in her favour would have been shown by a Burnet, "thought they should have begun first community the majority of which were Protesof all with those. But Cranmer, upon good rea-tants. At the accession of Elizabeth, on the consons, was of another mind, though much pressed trary, we behold a really national manifestation by Bucer about it. Till the order of bishops was of Protestantism-the people of all classes eagerly brought to such a model that the far greater part crowding to carry her in triumph to the throne, of them would agree to it, it was much fitter to and hailing her not only as their queen, but as let that design go on slowly than to set out a pro- their deliverer. The horrors of the preceding fession of their belief to which so great a part of Popish reign had done more to spread through the chief pastors might be obstinately averse." the land a horror of Popery than probably the But at length Gardiner, Bonner, Heath, and Day, most strenuous exertions on the part of an estabhaving all been got rid of, and Ridley, Coverdale, lished Protestant clergy could have done in twice Hooper, and other zealous friends of the Refor- the same space of time. No teaching, no preachmation, promoted to the episcopal bench, the pre-ing could have told like that of the martyrs from paration of articles of religion was proceeded with the midst of the flames. in 1551, and finished by the beginning of the The first year of Mary's reign saw everything next year, when they were published by the king's that had been set up in the matter of the national authority. These original articles were forty-two religion by her brother thrown down, and all in number, and did not differ as to any material that he had thrown down again set up. The point of doctrine from the present Thirty-nine parliament which met in the beginning of OctoArticles. ber, 1553, swept away, by a single statute of reAnother great work which employed the la-peal (1 Mary, sec. 2, cap. 2), all the acts of the bours of Cranmer and his associates in the course of this reign was the reform of the ecclesiastical

or canon law.

Although it never obtained any legal authority, the system of ecclesiastical law drawn up by Cranmer and his friends possesses much interest, from the light it throws upon the opinions entertained as to various points of great importance

last reign respecting the administration of the sacrament to the people in both kinds, the election of bishops, the uniformity of public worship, the marriage of priests, the abolition of missals and removal of images, the keeping of holidays and fast-days, &c.; and directed that Divine service should again be performed as it used to be in the last year of Henry VIII. Within the

same space, Gardiner, Bonner, Tunstal, Day, and Heath, were all restored to their bishoprics; Ridley and Cranmer were sent to the Tower; the other Protestant bishops were expelled from the House of Lords; and, soon after, all of them were deprived of their sees. At this point the directors of the retrograde movement halted for a few months. But before the end of the year 1554, acts had been passed by the parliament reviving all the old acts against heresy (1 and 2 Philip and Mary, cap. 6), and repealing all statutes, articles, and provisions made against the see apostolic of Rome since the 20th year of King Henry VIII., and also for the re-establishment of all spiritual and ecclesiastical possessions and hereditaments conveyed to the laity (1 and 2 Philip and Mary, cap. 8). Thus, as in the preceding year, things had been restored to the state in which they stood before the final establishment of Protestantism under Edward, they were now brought back to that in which they stood prior to the partial changes made by Henry.

ians of the persecution is to be believed, the victims in many cases tasted the rack and other tortures before they were brought to the stake.

Many English Protestants, also, in the early part of this reign, foreseeing the storm that was coming on, had fled abroad, taking refuge chiefly in Frankfort, Strasburg, Basle, Zürich, and Geneva. Among these were Sir Francis Knollys, afterwards Queen Elizabeth's vice-chamberlain; Grindal, afterwards successively Bishop of London, Archbishop of York, and Archbishop of Canterbury; Sandys, who succeeded Grindal in the archbishopric of York; Bale, late Bishop of Ossory, well known for his numerous writings, theological, biographical, and dramatic; Pilking ton, afterwards Bishop of Durham; Bentham, afterwards Bishop of Lichfield; Scory, late Bishop of Chichester, and afterwards Bishop of Hereford; Jewel, afterwards Bishop of Salisbury; Coverdale, the famous translator of the Bible, late Bishop of Exeter; Knox, the great Scottish Reformer; Fox, the martyrologist; and many other

have been above 800 of these refugees. They established English Protestant churches in most of the places where they took up their abodethe two most considerable congregations being at Frankfort and Geneva.

When Elizabeth came to the throne she found the Protestantism of those of her subjects who were Protestants a good deal stronger than her own. All the peculiarities of Elizabeth's Protestantism leaned towards the Popish notions; and it is very evident that if she had been left to make a religion of her own for the country, it would have been something about midway between the Protestant and the Roman systems. Indeed, it was not her fault that she was not reconciled to the court of Rome, to which, on her

It was after the work of demolition and re-learned persons. In all there are computed to erection had been thus completed that the fires were kindled at Smithfield and elsewhere, which were never suffered to go out, or left unfed by living fuel, during the remainder of the reign. It indeed acquired the character of a reign of blood, and as such will continue to be characterized in history, although more from the refined cruelty with which some of these executions were distinguished, than from their merely numeral amount. The manner of Cranmer's martyrdom, and the infamous treacheries with which it was preceded, rendered it more horrible than the summary slaughter of a whole hecatomb of ordinary victims. Women, too, were as little spared as men, their sex having no effect in exempting them from the stake, although a female sovereign was on the throne. Long after, it was remem-accession, she despatched an envoy to intimate bered with a sickening shudder, that a matron far advanced in pregnancy had been delivered in the midst of the flames-and that the babe had been rescued only to be thrown back into the fire. Another infant, by the order of Bishop Bonner, was whipped to death for the crime of being born of heretic parents. From the cruelties also used in prison, those who escaped the stake were little to be envied by those who were led out to Smithfield, as they endured in dark loathsome dungeons, and under a load of chains, the agonies of a living martyrdom, compared with which the place of execution would have been welcomed as a happy change. Many besides died in prison. Lord Burghley, in his tract entitled, The Execution of Justice in England, reckons the entire number that died by imprisonment, torments, famine, and fire, to have been near 400. If the unanimous testimony of the Protestant histor

that event in the same manner as she did to all the other courts of Europe. It was the pope that threw her off, not she that threw off the pope. But although circumstances prevented Elizabeth from making the Reformed church which she established in England exactly what her own views and inclinations would have demanded, her personal tastes had still a very considerable influence in determining the form and character which it actually assumed. Had Edward VI. survived, it would certainly have presented a very different aspect in the present day.

The first step which Elizabeth took in the matter of religion was designed to restrain the impetuosity of her more ardent Protestant subjects. When, immediately after her accession, the people in many places began to set up King Edward's service, to pull down images, and to insult the priests, she issued an order that certain

parts of the service should be read in English, of the statute, only Bonner, White, and Watson and that the elevation of the host should be dis- were detained in confinement. Most of the rest continued; but at the same time she strictly pro- spent the remainder of their days unmolested in hibited all further innovations for the present. England: Heath lived in his own house at Surrey, She also ordered that all preaching should be where he was sometimes visited by the queen; suspended In summoning her first parliament Tunstal and Thirleby resided with Archbishop she did not even assume the title of supreme head Parker at Lambeth. Only Pates, Scott, and of the church. The eminent Protestant divine, Goldwell left the country. Most of the monks, Dr. Matthew Parker, however, had been already Burnet says, returned to a secular course of life, selected to fill the metropolitan see, and every- but the nuns went abroad. A few of the Cathing had been arranged in the council for the tholic nobility and gentry also retired beyond restoration of the Reformed church. The par- seas. On the other hand, the exiles who had liament, accordingly, which met in the end of gone abroad in Mary's time returned in great January, 1559, before it separated in the beginning numbers, many of them to be nominated to the of May, revived all Henry VIII.'s acts against highest offices in the church. the jurisdiction and exactions of the Bishop of Rome, which had been repealed in the last reign, and also the statute of Edward VI., by which the communion was administered to the laity in both kinds; repealed the old acts against heresy which had been revived by Mary; appointed an oath acknowledging the supremacy of the crown over the church, to be taken by all spiritual persons on pain of deprivation (by stat. 1 Eliz. cap. 1); reestablished the use of King Edward's Book of Common Prayer, with certain slight alterations, chiefly in the communion service (by stat. 1 Eliz. cap. 2); and restored the first-fruits and tenths of benefices to the crown (by stat. 1 Eliz. cap. 4). A bill was also brought in, among some others that did not pass, for restoring to their benefices all clergymen that had been deprived in the last reign for being married; but it was dropped on the queen's order. Elizabeth, however, though no admirer of married priests, did not carry her scruples or dislike so far as seriously to attempt the project of setting up an unmarried clergy; she took no notice of the laws made by her sister in favour of clerical celibacy.

The effect of these new statutes was once more completely to revolutionize the national religion -to transform England from a Catholic into a Protestant country. A few weeks after the parliament rose, the oath of supremacy was tendered to the bishops; when Heath, Archbishop of York, Bonner, Bishop of London, Thirleby of Ely, Bourn of Bath and Wells, Bain of Lichfield, White of Winchester, Watson of Lincoln, Oglethorpe of Carlisle, Turberville of Exeter, Pool of Peterborough, Scott of Chester, Pates of Worcester, Goldwell of St. Asaph, Tunstal of Durham, and three bishops-elect, all refused it; in fact, Kitchen of Llandaff, the Vicar of Bray of the episcopal bench,' was the only one who consented to take it. With that single exception, therefore, all the sees became at once vacant; but although the deprived prelates were also at first sent to prison, in conformity with one of the provisions

See vol. ii. p. 79.

Meanwhile preparations were made for a general visitation of the national clergy. With this view certain injunctions were drawn up, but not without the queen proving almost impracticable as to one of them-that which directed the removal of images. However, she yielded at last to the remonstrances, if not to the reasonings of the bishops and other divines; and the injunctions were issued in nearly the same terms with those put forth by King Edward at his first coming to the crown, except that some things were added, of which the following were the most remarkable. Although marriage was not forbidden to the clergy, it was declared that great offence had been given by the indecent marriages that some of them had made in King Edward's days; and, therefore, no priest or deacon was to be allowed to marry without permission from the bishop of the diocese and two justices of the peace, as well as the consent of the woman's parents or nearest of kin. No book was to be printed or published without a license from the queen, or from six of her privy council, or from her ecclesiastical commissioners, or from the two archbishops, the Bishop of London, the chancellors of the two universities, and the bishop and archdeacon of the place where it was printed.

According to the report made by the visitors to the queen after they had finished their labours, it appeared that, of 9400 beneficed persons in England, all who chose to resign their benefices rather than comply with the new order of things at this crisis were, besides the fourteen bishops and three bishops-elect already mentioned, only six abbots, twelve deans, twelve archdeacons, fifteen heads of colleges, fifty prebendaries, and eighty rectors. So that, after this great change from Popery to Protestantism, the parochial clergy generally remained the same as before, almost the entire body having stepped over from

2 Tunstal, alike eminent for his learning and his virtue, survived this his second deprivation only a few months, dying the next year at the age of eighty-five. The numbers vary some

3 This is Burnet's enumeration. what in Camden and other authorities.