§ 31. Oaths, exclama

that is gratifying,' becomes quod scribis libenter te literas ad nos dare, id quidem gratum est, cf. § 23, 28.

§ 31. On the principle stated in § 29 (a) oaths and tion, apo- adjurations in Latin may be replaced in English by solemn asseveration.

strophe, and

questions toned down in English.

§ 32. Oratorical antithesis

and repetitions.

O. 10. 14; 25. 20; (26) 11; (35) 10; (41) 7.

P. 45 (b). 5.

(B) Stronger forms of exclamation by milder forms (with occasional exceptions as 0. (32) 4).

(y) Personal appeals (or apostrophe) in the second person by the periphrasis of the third, as more idiomatic. Cf. O. (1) 7; 6. 14, 22; 23.8; (23) 17; 25. 16; (27) 11; (28) 29; (44) 13. P. 3. 28; 14. 2.

And (8) questions by emphatic statement or exclamation as 0. 10. 13, 'never was there a Charybdis that gorged so insatiably-Charybdis indeed,' 'why if,' &c.

Cf. O. (9) 1; (12) 17; (24) 10—12; 34 b.
P. 35. 9; 45 (a). 1.

(e) Similarly English hyperbole, esp. of number, e.g. 'millions,' 'thousands,' &c. must not be translated literally, but by mille, sexcenti, innumerabiles, plurimi, nemo non, &c.

Cf. O. (6) 13; (38) 8; (41) 15.

P. 36. 11; (36) 4, 5, 10.

§ 32. Emphasis, antithesis, and balance, especially in oratorical Latin, must be adequately rendered; and the effect of emphatic repetition be expressed by repetitions of some word, if not actually the corresponding word, either at the beginning or at the end of the clause; cf. in O. 24 the repetition of omnia 1. 9; ne 1. 11; hic 1. 17; vita 1. 21; cum 1. 29; vestra 1. 33.

lelism,

§ 33. In Cicero parallel and contrasted ideas cor- $33. Rhythm respond in the rhythm and structure of their clause. In and paralTacitus they differ constantly both in rhythm and form of expression, except in reported speeches. See below, Rule II. Orat. Preface.

Cf. O. 37. 5, 10; 43; 44; &c. P. 36; 37.

H. 5. 10; 8. 16; 11. 10, 11; 16. 11; 21. 5; 35 (b). 5.

Latin of one

term for

§ 34. In all Latin there is a preference for using, $34. Use in where possible, one common verb applying to two or common more clauses, or one common adjective applying to two two English parallel nouns or one noun to two adjectives (put outside both, synonymes, whether before or after); whereas in English two balancing synonymes are preferred, each clause having its own verb, or noun annexed; but this general rule is often broken in Latin oratory to increase antithesis.

Cf. H. 7. 15; 9. 10; (b) 16; 11. 5.

P. 25. 6, 19, 24, 27; 26. 15, 16; 41. 12, 13.

Cf. O. (1) 1-7; 2. 5—11; 3. 10-22; (9) 21-25; 20. 4, 11; 34. 16; 36. 33; 39. 3, 10, 14; 40. 30; 47. 11.

monotonous

This objection to repeating the same word in English, Repetitions, where not strongly emphasized (cf. § 4) is not felt in Latin in English. to the same extent, the repetition often having there a more rhetorical effect than it would have in English.

Cf. O. 14. 5, 8; 15. 12; 25. 27; 30. 24-26, and cf. (44); (46).

P. 13. 26; 15. 10, 21; 16. 2, 3; 23 (b). 2, 10, 11; 45 a. 4.

H. (2) 18-21; (3) 18, 20, 28, 29; (21) 6, 7, 14, 15.

In English, too, such repetition may be effective, as in O. (30); (37); (39); but it is too often superseded by clumsy periphrasis and superfluous verbosity; e.g. proprium hoc imbecillo potius quam audaci animo 'characteristic rather of a weak mind than a bold one,' or 'weakness of mind rather than boldness of spirit;' imbecillo et corpore et animo of weak mind and delicate

$ 35. Pleo

nastic doub

in Latin.

§ 35. In Latin, two verbs are often put together ling of verbs pleonastically in one clause, especially at the end of a sentence for the sake of rhythm or rhetorical emphasis. They are generally best translated by one simple verb and an intensive adverb: e. g. fracta et debilitata 'utterly crushed.' Cf. O. 1. 16 recreat et reficit; 19. 18 succumberem et cederem; 29. 8 concedam et remittam.

§ 36. Rhetorical

as links.

Cf. O. 9. 25; 11. 12; 18. 19; 23. 8; 27. 22.

P. 4. 20, 23; 5. 4; (11) b. 16; 25. 13, 20; (27) b. 6.

§ 36. The use or disuse of rhetorical figures in figures used English or Latin prose must depend on the subjectmatter or style that may be chosen for imitation, and will be discussed more fully in the special prefaces below. A few general remarks are added here on the comparative frequency of the three main groups of such figures.

Hyperbaton.

A. Tropes of all kinds (Metaphor, Allegory, Simile, Personification, Synecdoche, Periphrasis, &c.) are used more freely in English Oratorical Prose and will often. have to be toned down in Latin. A few instances will suffice, e.g. O. (4); (11); (12); (26); (32); (36) b; (40) &c. In Narrative and History Latin admits such figures more freely, English less freely, than in Oratory; but still in some authors almost as freely as in Latin. Cf. H. (26); (27); and contrast P. 42 and (42).

In English Literary and Philosophical writing tropes are more frequent and are more florid and elaborate than in Latin. Cf. P. (5); (13) a; (23); (24).

The so-called tropes, however, named Hyperbaton and Anastrophe, or the irregular inversion of words in a sentence, are seldom found in English Prose (cf. 0. 39. 6; P. 37. 2, 12), but constantly in Latin, not so much in Oratory (as too artificial except when required

Use of Rhetorical Figures.

xxxix

for emphasis, cf. O. 3. 2; 34 (a). 5), oftener in History, and especially in Tacitus both with verb, preposition, adverb, and conjunction. Cf. H. 6. 17; 8. 10, 14; 9. 16; still oftener in Philosophical Prose, cf. P. 6. 9, 11, 14; 8. 26-29; 11. 9; 13. 39; 25. 26-39; 38. 1. This figure should be studied and imitated, for the sake of both emphasis and variety in writing Latin Prose. The more frequent use in Latin of parenthesis abruptly in clauses should also be noticed, cf. § 27.

B. Figuræ verborum (e. g. repetitions of all kinds, Asyndeton, Polysyndeton, Chiasmus, Parallelism, Antithesis) are frequent in English, and still more so in Latin Prose of all kinds, as will be seen in the special prefaces.

It should be especially noticed how they are used to bring out clearly both the point and the connexion of sentences, both of which are so often lost in English from the want of such means of emphasis and antithesis, cf. H. 23; 30. 2; and contrast 29 and (29); 31 and (31).

In translating English the words must be carefully worked up into this rhetorical order and form of expression, and this will be best done by reciting with emphasis the clauses to ourselves, and training the ear to catch the hidden antithesis which the English order fails to shew.

C. Figuræ Sententiarum (especially Interrogation, Exclamation, Apostrophe) are far commoner in Latin Prose of all kinds than in English, and must often be introduced in Latin where they are not found in the English sparingly in Historical Latin, but frequently in Oratory and Philosophy. Conversely they must be toned down in rendering into English, cf. § 31 and Philosophical Hints, Rule B. Instances in good English

§ 37. Words
equivalent
in sound,
not in
sense.

xl

Treacherous word-equivalents.

b; contrast P. 27 b and (27); 32 and (32); 33 and 45 (a) and (b) with (33).

Interrogation too is a figure largely used, especially in Oratory and Philosophical Dialogues, as a connexion between sentences, e. g. quid? quid vero? quid igitur? quid tum? quid enim? quid quod, &c. quid tum ? quid plura? represent the Latin jam, jam vero, praeterea, esto, denique, &c. and the English 'moreover,' 'again,' 'well,' 'finally,' 'in short, &c.'

§ 37. Among the general hints may be added a caution against hastily rendering an English derivative by the Latin word from which it is derived. Most of our Latin words in general use come through the French from late or Low Latin, and do not represent classical uses and meanings. The following may be given as instances of words that present pitfalls (in this respect or from their extended metaphorical use in English), and must be used with care: exstinguere, opprimere, obligare, vindicare, arbitrari, sollicitare, examinare, adorare, occupare, possidere, obtinere, urgere, attinere, provocare, ludicrus, mortalis, famosus, attonitus, securus, fatalis, frequens, sublimis, hora, crimen, triumphus, ruina, scena, fraus, opinio, sententia, honor, corona, instrumentum, officium, contentio, celebritas, privilegium, schola, disciplina, odium, insolentia, &c. &c.

The subjects of the oratio obliqua, of the sequence of tenses, of the use of moods, of the use of prepositions and conjunctions, and the differences of idiom as to numerals and expressions of time and other matters, have been passed over. They have been discussed in the Notes on Idioms (Par. Extracts, Part I.), and may be found also in most grammars, to which they more naturally belong.