Latin has antithetical particles (quidem, sane-sed, vero, tamen, &c.) corresponding to pèv and Sè; but one or both are constantly omitted and emphasis of position used instead. This omission must be carefully marked and the antithesis preserved in English.

Cf. O. 4. 18-22; 37. 9; 38. 10; 43 (b). 10.
H. 2. 5; 21. 14.

Latin.

§ 25 (a). Latin co-ordinate clauses are usually con- § 25. Simple copulas, nected by simple particles, e. g. sed, autem, vero, ceterum, English and tamen, at enim, sane, quidem, ut...ita, modo...modo,neque... neque, neque...sed, et...et, simul...simul, vix...et, aut...aut, vel...vel, quum...tum. These are often rendered more elaborately in English, e. g. 'however that may be,' 'however, to resume,' 'but I shall be told,' 'no doubt,' 'granted that,' 'not only,' 'but also,' 'instead of,' 'on the other hand,' 'the other alternative,' 'in spite of,' 'no sooner than,'' simultaneously with,' &c. The repetition of the simplest particles (et...et, aut...aut, &c.) often produces a rhetorical effect which we can reproduce only by more elaborate periphrasis, e.g. 'on the one hand,' 'on the other,' &c. as in P. 17. 23; 19. 3; 25. 34.

Cf. O. 2. 10; 8. 7, 8; 13. 15-21; 17. 14; 27. 11-22; 28. 9; 45. 14.

H. 15 (b). 1; 20. 6; 25. 3, 15; 38. 3.

P. (1) 6, cf. 1. 4; 8. 22; 11. 1–7; 13. 22, 24.

(b). The simple copula is somewhat less used in Latin owing to the use of connecting relatives. It is also often omitted in vivid descriptions, and is not often used in Latin as in English to connect consecutive relative clauses (unless they refer to different subjects, as P. 8. 10), e.g. 'men whose acquaintance all cultivate and whom nevertheless none believe;' quem tu spernis ego autem odi. But cf. 0. 5. 20 with P. 36. 5.

O. 41 (a). 5; (b) 11.

H. 9 (b). 14—19; 13 b. 20; 15 (a).

§ 26. Inexact use of adverbial links.

(c). But on the other hand, it is used as a rule to connect two or more adjectives and participles which in English are prefixed or added to a substantive without a copula, e.g. 'old battered ships freighted with a few worthless articles' (H. 32. 8); in tot et tantis malis ‘so many great troubles.' Cf. P. 20 (b). 10.

Cf. P. 4. 11, 13; (13) b. 17; (20) 19; 28. 2; 31. 5.

(d). It is used also in a simple effective way to introduce a detail where we drop it altogether, especially in a parenthesis. Sometimes to emphasize it, in which case we often find quidem, certe, profecto attached.

Cf. O. 30. 13; 45. 9.

P. 2. 24; 7. 14; 29. 17; 42. 7.

H. 18. 5; 23 (c). 5; 24. 19; 29. 11, 14.

It

§ 26. Temporal adverbs and adverbial clauses play an important part in the connexion of sentences. should be observed,

(i). That they usually come first, e.g. primo, interim, dein, mox, postremo, postero die, &c.

Cf. O. 7. 1, 18; 15. 3, 11, 14.

H. 1. 1; 2. 1; 9 (b). 1; 12. 6; 15. 1; 29. 1; 33. 1.

(ii). That temporal (a) connexions are often interchanged with logical (b), and local (c) adverbs, e.g.

(a). tum, nunc, tum vero, tum...tum, quum...tum, jam, tandem, quid tum, quid postea, &c., in logical sense

for

(b). itaque, ut...ita, porro, proinde, etiam, quoque, quidem, quippe, modo, demum, &c., some of which are used of time,

and, (c). inde, ibi, hinc, hic, eo, qua, ultra, ad id locorum, hactenus, &c., in temporal and logical as well as local senses.

Cf. O. 13. 1, 28; 24. 14, 21; 36. 6, 20, 21; 48. 10.
H. 13 (b). 8, 15; 16. 13; 25. 6; 30. 1.

Periods and Parentheses.

xxxiii

(iii). That adverbs referring to present time are often used of the past, especially in descriptions and in oratio obliqua, e.g. 'this' for 'that,' 'now' for 'then,' 'hence,' 'here' for 'thence,' 'there,' &c. This use is commoner in English. A few instances will show this: 'he was now just on twenty,' vicesimum annum tum agebat; 'Charles was now (at this time) king,' eo tempore; 'up to now (ad id temporis), he had feared,' &c.; ‘even now he shrank from,' etiam tum timuit, &c.; 'he now proceeded,' &c. inde pergit, &c.; 'he at once marched to the river; here (ibi) he encamped;' 'Arminius, now (at this moment) gave the signal' (tum maxime); 'just now;' quæ paulo ante dixi; 'hitherto he had been successful,' ad id locorum.

Cf. O. 42. 11; (47) 9, 19.

P. (43) 15; 44 (a). 1, (c). 1.

H. 2. 18; (8) 16; 11 (a). 11; (11) (b). 14; 12 (a). 3; 15. 3; (19) 12.
Still even in oratio obliqua we find nunc for tunc:

hic for ille; adhuc, hactenus, &c.

E.g. H. 2. 8; 7. 11; 23 (a). 1; 27. 4, 11, 19.

change of

and co

clauses

the paren

§ 27 (a). Latin subordinate clauses, when the thought $27. Interis distinct and complete in itself, e. g. O. 7. 20, and not subordinate merely a limit or qualification (as O. 7. 26 sq.) of some ordinate other idea, should be replaced by separate co-ordinate the period, clauses in English: and long periods must be broken up. thesis. Conversely English co-ordinate clauses expressing time, circumstance, cause, &c. in relation to a main subject, e. g. O. (7) 21-29; (36) (b). 5-7, must be built up into a period in Latin: and grouped in chronological order as far as possible, round the words expressing central action, in the shape of ablatives absolute, or quum, ubi, &c. with verb, or present or past participles in agreement with subject, or object, or sometimes co-ordinate parentheses, as P. 36. 7.

Co-ordinate

parentheses.

§ 28. Terms grammati

(b). These co-ordinate parentheses are more common in oratory, where a long period is found less suitable for a public audience than it is for the reader of history, but where nevertheless orderly connected grouping round a central idea is far commoner than in English.

Cf. O. 7. 1; 18. 10; 19. 14; 23. 8; 33. 3, 5; 35. 27.

(c). The co-ordinate parenthesis is often found too in history, especially in Tacitus (who avoids long periods), and very often without any connecting particle, and in cases where we use subordinate clauses.

Cf. H. 1. 4; 3. 15, 28; 18. 5; 24. 1; 33 (b). 2; 34. 3; 35 (b). 3. See § 18.

§ 28 (a). Incomplete English expressions must be cally incom- made complete in Latin (especially participles used as plete, completed in adjectives) by the addition of a grammatical object conLatin. nected with a relative clause, or a genitive (rerum, sui, &c.) alone (cf. § 13), e.g. 'a blinding rain,' 'an unconvincing argument,' 'a terrifying sight,' 'grasping avarice,' 'confidence' (fiducia sui), 'inconsistency,' 'trust,' 'harmony,' 'devotion,' 'descriptions' (rerum descriptiones). Cf. § 1 c.

So too in translating phrases like 'to act as a stimulus,' a desire to excel,' &c., a grammatical object, e.g. animum, ceteros, &c. must be supplied in Latin.

Cf. P. 3. 19; 13. 2; 34. 7; 35. 6, 16; (35) 1.

(b). Under this rule come the Latin translations of 'no' and 'yes,' cf. 19 a: and of 'why not?'; 'if so;' 'far from it;' anyhow;' 'indeed?' itane est 0. 5. 6; ain tandem P. 13. 2; 'as for,' &c. quod attinet ad, quid dicam de, &c. in all of which Latin would naturally supply a verb. Cf. quod scribis (speras &c.) te venturum, 'as to your coming.' Ellipse of verbs with adverbs, e.g. bene, male (frustra, Cæs. B. G. 8. 3. Quint. 9. 3. 60) occurs often, but mainly with facit, dicit, agit understood.

For the tendency generally, cf. the notes in §§ 23, 30 on allusiveness.

(c). Under the same heading may be noticed the colloquial omission of the relative in phrases like 'the book I gave you' quem dedi; 'before he could speak' ante quam loqui potuit; or of the verb, in phrases like 'those behind' qui post erant; 'those sent' qui missi

erant.

Cf. O. 7. 21, 24; 13. 26.
P. 38. 4; 42. 6.

H. 13 (a). 4; 30. 8.

phor.

§ 29. Metaphors, if effete, should not be reproduced, § 29. Metaor if unnatural (as incomplete, incongruous, excessive) in the other tongue, should be replaced by analogous metaphor or toned down or developed. Metaphors are used more precisely and more sparingly in Latin. Cf. P. E. § 45.

Cf. O. 11. 8; (16) 11; 18. 17-23; 24. 4; (24) 10; (32) 16; 34. 1, 6, 8—11; (35) 8; (39) 2; 47. 7 and (b).

P. 23 (b). 3, 11; 27 (a); 29. 10; (35) 7, 8.
H. (13) b. 1; (26) b. 15; (36) 14, 16, 21.

preferred

metaphors.

§ 30 (a). Allusive metaphors in English must be $30. Similes expanded and expressed directly in Latin as O. (26) to allusive 9-14; (36) b. 23; and, generally, the simile be used in preference to metaphors. Cf. P. E. (26) 19, 'It was an Egyptian darkness.'

O. (11) 9, 17; (12) 5; (13) 38; (14) 20; (34) 8.

P. (13) a. 20; (32); (32) b; (45) b.

The metaphors, in translation, will often have to be shifted from verb to substantive or adjective.

Cf. O. (4) 9—16; (24) 17; (29) 19; (34) 12, 24, 27, 30.

ness.

(b). Allusiveness generally must be replaced by more Allusive