Adjectives and Participles.

Cf. O. 22. 6; 24. 14; 32. 16; 34. 20.

H. 4. 5; 8. 5, 19; 11. 2, 10; 24. 11, 12, 14; 33. 12—15.

xxi

P. 10. 12; 11. 25—32; 32. 23; 34. 13; 41. 14, 15; 45 (c). 9, 10. (ii). Similarly with things, the neuter of the adjective, and of the past participle passive (e. g. præterita), is constantly used substantivally (rarely that of the pres. part. active, e. g. in præsens, moventia); the plural oftener than the singular, but the latter fairly often and very frequently with prepositions (e. g. in dubio); both in the nominative and in other cases also; but in the main its use is limited to cases where confusion with the masculine would be prevented by the sense of the context or by the collocation or connexion with other words, e. g. dignis (ait esse paratus, Hor.) would not be used for dignis rebus. But Livy has convictus veris, because the masculine would require a prefixed. So too quibus rebus (not quibus) opus erat. But cf. P. 9. 15; 22. 1. The neut. of the past participle is even used for verbals, e. g. diu non perlitatum tenuerat dictatorem (Liv.).

O. 6. 13; 32. 15; 39. 1; 45. 19.

H. 11 (b). 2, 6; 22. 8; 23 (a). 1; 24. 4, 10; 33. 13, 17.

P. 9. 8; 15. 1; 21. 5; 22. 1; 30. 5; 31. 15; 36. 4, 14; 39. 23. N.B. Instances of the masculine nominative of the present active (e. g. nocens), or of the past participle (e.g. togatus), or of the future participle in any case, before Livy, used substantivally are very rare, such as P. 45 (c). 9.

sent and

verb and

(b). In English, present participles are widely used $13(6). Prefor Latin adjectives, and for relative or other clauses past participles (adjectival or verbal), in causal, concessive, hypothetical, replaced by temporal senses, and referring to present, past, and future; adj. e. g. 'a harrowing tale' plena miseriarum; 'a grinding tyranny' iniqua dominatio; 'rats leaving falling houses' quæ casuræ sunt; 0. 12. 1 'seeing' cum intellegerent; O. 33. 16 'unsuspecting' qui nihil metuerent.

Missing participles.

§ 13 (e). Eng. pendent

(c). The absence in Latin of a present participle passive and a past participle active necessitates a much more frequent use of verbal and especially of relative clauses

(though sometimes the past participle passive is used loosely for the present or imperfect, as obsessi for qui obsidentur, obsidebantur, to avoid prolixity, as invicti, contempti &c. for 'invincible,' 'contemptible' &c.).

Cf. O. (5) 1, 4; 12. 8.

H. (14) 4, 17, 20, 26; 32. 6, 16; 34. 2, 12.

(d). Even the past participle passive in English will often be rendered by a relative clause in Latin as in P. (2) b; 11; 'beings so described,'' alleged appearances.' Cf. O. (1) 27; 7. 16; (14) 14—20.

H. (30) b. 1, 5; (32) 10, 15.

(e). The English participle is often loosely used in a participles. 'pendent' construction, e. g. 'considering all things,' 'wild disorder, some flying others pursuing,' where in Latin a finite verb with si, quum, &c., an imperfect, or historic infinitive would be used, as H. 2. 1—3, 23; P. (27). 1; (32) 18-20; often it comes after a main clause (like the Tacitean ablative absolute) where in Latin a coordinate clause will take its place (cf. H. 30. 21), with nam quippe, &c. prefixed; e. g. 'they all came, many hoping,' or 'having hoped' &c. (nam sperabant, speraverant &c.).

§ 14. Wider use of

Cf. H. (7) 3; (9) b. 2, 3; 10. 2; 21. 8; 22. 13; 31. 22.

§ 14. The absence of an epexegetic or final infinitive infinitives in Latin causes a wider use of relative and other verbal in English. clauses, e. g. 'too good to be true,' melius quam quod verum esse (or revera accidisse) possit; 'I am surprised to see,' miror cum video. Cf. P. 13. 4, 5 and § 19 (c); 'to sum up shortly' ut paucis concludam.

On the other hand, the historic infinitive is not found in English; the infinitive of surprise not often;

the English verbal (and participle) in -ing often replacing these infinitives, though oftener they are translated by finite clauses, cf. P. E. § 31.

exact use of

§ 15 (a). Tenses in English are used loosely (especi- § 15 (a). Inally in the present perfect and imperfect): the time must tenses in English. be strictly expressed in Latin (cf. § 16). This rule needs especial notice where a Latin relative clause has to express a timeless word in English. So 'the petitioner' may be qui petit or petebat, petiit, petet: 'if he likes,' si vult, si volet, si voluerit; what he learnt he soon forgot' quae didicit (e. g. tum, 'on one occasion') discebat (e. g. at school or generally), obliviscebatur, oblitus est: what is given' quod datur, datum est (dabitur), 'is (or will be) lost,' perditur, perditum est, perdetur. So too 'before (after or until) he had gone away,' is, in Latin, more correctly, priusquam &c. abiit.

This inexactness of tense appears conspicuously in the use of the English past and present participles, e. g. 'dismounting at once he swam across' H. 31. 2; 'the remaining part' quod reliquum est, erat, erit; and in the use of the verbal in -ing (e.g. 'from your laughing' ex eo (ob id) quod rides, ridebas, risisti, ridebis); 'without crying' ut non (or nisi) fleat, fleverit, &c.; 'without delaying' nil morans, moratus.

Cf. H. (5) 31; (8) 18; (12) 1; 23. 1, 9; (25) 4; 31. 2.

of Latin and

(b). The Latin perfect is both a perfect and an aorist, § 15 (6). Use but its dominant idea is rather that of an aorist, so that English perfect. the dependent clauses may follow as if after a secondary tense (even when it is translated as a perfect).

Cf. O. 5. 12 with O. 8. 5-10, 16; 12. 9. P. 3. 32; 6. 4––6. It must be remembered that our perfect forms (e. g. 'I have often noticed') are often spurious perfects, in reality aorists, and so to be treated in Latin constructions.

§ 16. Use of historic present.

§ 17. Eng

lish passives

§ 16. The historic present is rare in English, common in Latin, and sometimes used consistently throughout as H. 23. 6; or mixed with perfects, imperfects and historic infinitives as H. 23 (a) (c); 31.

Dependent clauses follow as after a present in English, as after a past or a present tense in Latin, or with a mixture of the two constructions. Dum is found with the indicative historic present even in oratio obliqua.

Cf. O. 7; 9. 1-3; 33 a.

H. 13 (b); 27; 33 b. &c.

§ 17. English passives are constantly replaced in replaced by Latin by the less cumbrous forms of the active, the gram

Latin ac

tive.

§ 18. English parenthetical renderings of Latin

main verbs. Parentheses.

matical subject becoming the object. Such grammatical object is often connected with reflexive pronouns as if really the subject of the sentence. Cf. O. 11. 13 sua

quemque fraus, &c.

Cf. H. 10. 1; 23 b. 7, 12, 14; 31. 3.

O. 26. 7, 11; 34. 5; 35. 19, 20.

§ 18 (a). The Latin main verb is often expressed in English parenthetically, or subordinately; especially such words as videtur, dicitur, fertur, memini, soles, as usual,' 'as is said,' 'as it seems,' &c. We find usually, as H. 25, 2, fertur locutus rather than ut fertur, locutus est. Cf, P. 38. 7.

6

Cf. O. 1. 40; 2. 14; 11. 1, 3.

H. 21. 8; 28. 4, 5; 33 (b). 2, 11.

P. 3. 17; 5. 11, 12; 13. 24; 26. 4, 6, 13; 38 7; 45 (a). 2.

(b). Similarly Latin mood-forms of courtesy, e.g. noli, nolim, velim, ausim, haud crediderim, dixerim, e.g. 'I should not like,' 'would you mind?' are oftener in English rendered by help-verbs or by parenthetical clauses, if you please,' 'if I may venture,' 'if I may so say,' 'if you do not object.' Though the latter forms often occur in Latin phrases, such as ut ita dicam, tua

bona venia dixerim, si dis placet. So too 'I assure you,'
'I entreat,' 'let me ask you,' and even imperatives like
'believe me,' and questions like 'do you not see?' put
parenthetically in English, will often appear as the lead-
ing verb in Latin.

Cf. O. 4. 7; 11. 1, 10; 25. 31; 43 (a). 6.
P. 8. 4.

H. 35 (a). 7.

dropped.

(c). But a large number of English parentheses will be Parentheses found to disappear in Latin, e.g. 'I know,' O. 42. 9, ‘said he,' 'he continued,' 'they declared,' 'they cried,' 'they urged,' 'he asked.' These are dropped regularly in oratio obliqua, being expressed by the infinitive or the subjunctive, e.g. onerari, decernerent H. 11 (b). 6, 9; agerent ac ferirent H. 3. 23. However in short speeches in oratio recta inquit' will often be found H. 2. 28; 6. 14; and ait, dicit, &c. occasionally in oratio obliqua, H. 11 (b). 4, but even then as the main verb and not parenthetically; cf. 0. 29. 9-13.

Cf. H. 11 (a); 12 (b); 21. 12—25; (22) 4.

P. 9. 7; 32. 14.

tives and

equivalents.

§ 19 (a). Modern languages, and notably French $19. Nega(e. g. in the use of ne...pas, ne...point, ne...guère, &c.), negative freely use compound negatives where in Latin the simple form would be used. So in English 'never' often represents non, as in non jam, non amplius. Cf. O. 14. 6, 26; 35. 23, 24; 45. 13; (25) 24, where 'never' may be used in translation, but not nunquam in the Latin. Hence sometimes never' becomes an ambiguous or inadequate rendering of nunquam. Cf. O. 21. 10; 36. 28-29; 44. 21. On the other hand nihil is often used for 'not' (0. 4. 3; 8. 3). The Latin use too of a simple negative or affirmative non, immo, minime for the curt Teutonic 'no,' 'yes,' nein, ja, without a verb, is as rare or rarer than in French: nego, aio; non ita est; ita