11. 5 (ne pii quidem = 'their piety'); H. 10. 8 ut sunt mobiles ad superstitionem 'with the usual tendency to superstition;' H. 18 (b). 2 ut ferme intuta sunt adversa 'with the treachery (or insecurity) which follows on reverse.' Cf. H. 4. 5; 8. 19; 17. 5; 19. 1; 31. 6; (25) 1; (27) 1; (29) 18; (30) b. 6—10; (32) 3. P. (13) b. 14; 42. 17; 44 (a). 11; 45 (c). 10. (e). This substitution in Latin of living things as $1(e). Examples of grammatical subjects for the English abstract idea may abstract be studied and practised in the following passages: O. (11) 1; (12) 1; (47) 2; (46) 10—15; (48) 1. H. (12) 5; (13) a. 10, 24; b. 14; (18) 5; (29) 1, 15; (31) 10, 18. P. (5) b. 7—11, cf. 5. 7, 9; (9) 1, 4, 11; (10) 1, 4, 10; (13) 1; (26) 1; (36) 1; (41) 1, 2, 13; (43) 2; (44) b. 4. Compare also phrases like animos imperitorum P. 3. 21, for unlearned minds.' terms for living agents. Use of terms in (f). In Latin, however, abstract terms can of course § 1 (ƒ). be used when a strictly abstract idea, quality or process abstract has to be particularized; cf. Cic. de Offic. 1. 43, 152 Latin. comparatio et contentio de duobus honestis utrum honestius. The wider range of the English abstract term (e.g. 'comparison' or 'analogy') may be seen by noticing its various equivalents in the following sentences: Comparisons are odious'-hominum (rerum) inter se comparatio; 'the comparison is an odious one,' offendit comparatum (e.g. cum sue fanum); 'by, in, on comparison' res inter se comparando verum exquirit; in rebus comparandis diversitas cum similitudine animo obversatur; rebus comparatis diversitas apparet; inter se comparatæ apparuit quam diversæ essent res. It requires therefore great care to distinguish in English the real abstraction that admits an abstract equivalent in Latin. 0. 1. 38; 3. 22; 6. 7, 29; 35. 5, 8, 14. H. 1. 7; 7. 18; 24. 12, 17; 33 (a). 7, 21. xii Latin abstracts. Case-forms for nouns. § 2. English substantives for Latin case verbs, con . P. 1. 4, 8; 3. 26; (9) 10—17; 11. 2, 7; 13. 1, 11, 13, 31; (13) a. 1-7; b. 1, 2, 18; 41. 6. We find also of course in Latin prose as well as in poetry numerous instances of abstracts used for concretes. They may be classified as follows: (i). Personifications (i. e. abstract notions treated as persons), e.g. Natura, fama, rumor, &c. Cf. O. 1. 19; 3. 22; 4. 3; 9. 9, 24; 12. 2; 25. 2. H. 8. 22; 24. 4. P. 3. 28; 4. 16; 26 b. 5; 35. 15; 37. 5, 7, 14. (ii). Quality (or state) of a person put substantivally for the person with such quality predicated of him adjectivally; e. g. non exspectavit militum ardor H. 6. 3. Cf. O. 6. 8, 29; 8. 2; 18. 17, 18; 43. 10. H. 2. 8; 33 (a). 2. P. 32. 15; 37. 5; 45 c. 14. (iii). Instances of the above where the abstract term from usage has acquired in itself or by itself a concrete meaning, e. g. juventus, judicium (for judices), convivium (for conviva), remigium, &c. Cf. O. 1. 8; 3. 10; 10. 2, 9. P. 27 b. 8; 37. 5; 39. 4; 44. 6, 7; b. 7. § 2. Case-forms of Latin nouns or pronouns, and prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions of time, place, forms, ad- &c. which are, or represent, cases, may often be transjunctions, lated by distinct substantives, i. e. period, sphere, scene, prepositions, &c. matter, agency, instrument, manner, origin, reason, object, proportion, circumstance, characteristic duties, &c., e.g. factum esse constat, a quibus, per quos, unde, cur, qua, quo modo, in dubio est; so an fecerit = 'the question of fact;' quo spectat, &c. = 'the object' 'goal,' &c.; quo 6 Substantival Pleonasms. xiii ne plus, minus = 'the maximum or minimum attainable ;' Cf. O. 8. 15; 29. 1-3; 35. 19; 40. 31; 45. 10. Sometimes the case-forms, prepositions, &c. are expressed in English by adjectives and participles, e. g. ' endowed with' vir bonis artibus; attended by' 'involving' cum periculo; 'relating to you' de te; 'mutual deception of one another' inter se fraude. nasms and stantival § 3. Many double substantival phrases in English § 3. Pleo(e.g. 'sense of honour,' 'feeling of shame') are expressed double subby single substantives, e. g. fides, pudor, in Latin: and phrases. substantival pleonasms or periphrases generally disappear or are expressed incidentally by some simple noun or pronoun or adjective or verb, e. g. 'the ugliest feature of the affair' quod maxime offendit; so 'point,' 'circumstance,' 'theory,' 'question,' 'characteristic,' 'complexion,' 'relation,' &c. and phrases like 'news came to the effect that' nuntiatur; 'we use this in the sense of' ita dicimus ut dicamus P. 16. 2. Cf. O. 8. 6-8; 11. 7; 16. 2-7; 26. 11; 47. 4. H. (11) b. 5, 9, 13; (12) 2; (15) b. 1, 2; (16) 25; (27) 4, 5, 8, 19; (35) 4; (37) 15. P. (1) 1, 8, 9, 10; (2) 1; (2) b.; (9) 1—9; (24) b. 16; (28) 2, 6; (35) 7, 9; (38) 1, 11, 17. thetical and pleo Periphras § 4. English antithetical synonymes or pleonasms, § 4. Antiwhether verbs, adjectives or substantives, come under synonymes this rule, e.g. 'you ought to write: will you do so?' nasms. 'good books and bad ones,' 'happy or not,' 'did he go? tic repehe did.' Cf. H. (10) 12 'a sign of wrath and an emblem titions. § 5. Double substantives in Latin. plaints.' In English, it will be seen, we shrink from Cf. O. 2. 17, 18; 5. 14, 16; 15. 12; 41. 3, 4, 8, 9. The simplicity of Latin is shewn perhaps most clearly in its comparative want of synonymes and its use and constant repetition of simple words like res, sum, do, habeo. The constant repetition of sum (even in the same sentence) should be studied, with its various English equivalents. See O. 5. 4-14; 18. 12—15; 21. 7; 30 (b). 24-27. P. 17. 1—5, 17—24; 22. 12—15; 23 (a); (b). 2, 10, 11. § 5. On the other hand Cicero often uses two terms in translating a single Greek phrase or technical name Hendiadys. with or without the apologetic quasi or quidam (just as he is very fond of using two verbs coupled together pleonastically, especially at the end of a sentence, cf. § 35); the effect being to intensify the idea or to express it more fully; e. g. 'thorough system,' 'intrinsic nature,' 'real meaning,' 'external appearance;' via et ratio (μéloSos); vis et natura (þúσis); mens et ratio; vis et sententia; forma et species. With this usage may be classed the various forms of hendiadys common in Tacitus and in poets. Cf. O. 1. 38; 2. 9; 11. 10, 12, 15. H. 1. 16; 6, 7; 11 (a). 4, 7, (b). 3; 15 (b). 8; 17. 11. P. 5. 3; 8. 28; (13) b. 14; 25. 15, 22; (27) b. 1; 27 (b). 6, 15. Adjectives and Participles. XV tives. tives and and inten § 6. In translation the positive, comparative and §6. Adjecsuperlative adjectives and adverbs may often be inter- Interchange of positives, changed, as in translating procacior quam veracior; prior compararogavit; durior es; optime; facinus præclarissimum: and superlatives intensives (so great, very great, &c.) be substituted for, sives. or replaced by, simple positives and superlatives, e.g. 'such a scoundrel' vir nequissimus; non vis potius quam &c. 'so much as.' 0.47 (b). 13; nihil pulchrius homine, 'nothing is so beautiful as (the highest type of beauty is) the human form.' P. 3. 27. Cf. O. 5. 26; 29. 11; 38. 18; 44. 6—20. H. (13) b. 1; 14 a. 1; (16) 15, 18; 32. 16; 33. 14; 34, 7; 35 (a). 2. P. 3. 27, 32; (2) b. 2; (3) b. 8; 13. 18; 25. 40; (35) 1. cative use § 7. The Latin adjective and participle are some- § 7. Preditimes used predicatively with verbs, e. g. lætus, sciens hoc of Latin adjectives. fecit, where we prefer an adverb or adverbial clause. But beginners must be chary of this use and notice carefully how they are so used, viz. (i). To qualify the state of the subject (though incidentally qualifying the verb), e.g. ruunt cæci 'blindly' or 'blinded,' primus venit: less often for the object (e.g. tacitum ferre quod nolis factum). (ii). Sometimes to qualify the verb alone, e. g. nullus venit, frequens adorat, secretus abiit: but rarely however of time and quantity except in the poets, e.g. plurima ('copiously') manat lacrima; serus redeas; ferte citi flammas. The present participle too is rarely used in this sense. Cf. (i) O. 4. 3, 20, 22; 5. 7. H. 30. 19; 34. 12. P. 38. 11. (ii) H. 12 (a). 3; 13 (b). 5; 25. 2. (iii). In these cases the adjective and participle are |