and their windows, when of more than one light, were divided by a rude baluster, supporting a long impost through the thickness of the wall. In the Norman the towers were lower in proportion-were strengthened with buttresses, and had in general staircases, either in projecting turrets or within the thickness of the wall; their masonry had not the peculiar framework or quoins, and their windows were divided by small shafts instead of balusters. The mouldings, too, in the Saxon are few and simple, while in the Norman they are so numerous and ornamental, as to form an important characteristic of the style.

On the first view of a Norman building we are struck with its solid and massive, though somewhat flat appearance, while the absence of a spire, its comparatively low tower, round-headed windows and doors, almost flat buttresses, ornamented string courses, and the use of the zigzag and other mouldings in the most profuse manner, serve at once to distinguish it from any of the later styles. In the interior we find the same character: massive piers, round-headed windows, and a low vaulted or flat ceiling, impart an air of gloomy magnificence, which we never find in the buildings of a later period. This is particularly the case in the early structures; for the Normans, not being good builders, were obliged to compensate for want of skill by piling together immense masses of materials; but even then, instances are recorded of their edifices falling as soon as erected.

The general plan of small churches in this style is that of a parallelogram, consisting of a nave and chancel, with the tower either at the west end or at the junction of the two. In large churches the plan is generally cruciform, the tower being placed at the intersection of the cross, and sometimes the west end is flanked by two towers. The east end frequently terminated in a circular projection or apse, and in large conventual buildings or cathedrals there are frequently several of these both at the east end and on the transepts, where they served as chapels. Its vertical arrangements consisted of three tiers or stages, divided by mouldings or string courses, the lower of which was occupied by a semicircular arch resting on piers, separating the nave and choir from the aisles; the second contained the triforium (which in some instances was only a passage in the wall), the front of which opened into the body of the church by an arch, divided by a shaft into two lights, as at Norwich and Winchester Cathedrals, or subdivided into smaller arches, as at Malmesbury. This tier is by some early writers called also the blind-story, to distinguish it from the next or clear-story, in which are the windows above the aisles. In this upper story, also, there is a passage in the wall. VOL. I.

of the vaulting. In the early Norman buildings, however, the architects did not venture to throw vaults over the large spaces, but contented themselves with covering these with a flat boarded ceiling (as at Peterborough), and vaulting the aisles. The earliest vaults are what are called barrel vaults, that is merely a semi-cylinder reaching from side to side, as in the chapel of the Tower of London. Afterwards plain arches were thrown from pier to pier, and the space between was vaulted with diagonal groins without ribs, as in the crypt at Canterbury. These were at a still later period strengthened by vaulting ribs, which in later times were ornamented with the zigzag and other mouldings.

The piers which support the arches, are in the earlier examples strikingly solid and massive, being merely plain square or circular masses of masonry, sometimes having capitals and bases, and sometimes merely an impost to relieve the outline. The square piers were frequently recessed at the angles, and in some cases had half pillars attached to their sides; and the circular ones in some instances had the plain surface relieved by lines cut in a lozenge or spiral form, as at Durham and Norwich Cathedrals. As the style advanced, these solid piers were reduced to more moderate proportions of round or octagonal pillars, and in the time of the transition were frequently very tall and slender.

47

of the earliest forms of the capital, and which with various modifications is found in all periods of the style, is what is called the cushion capital. It is frequently divided into two or many parts, and is also sometimes enriched with sculpture of foliage and figures; but under all these modifications it may still be taken as the primary form of the Norman capital. Throughout the whole of the Saxon and Norman period, there is an evident imitation

TRANSITION NORMAN CAPITAL, hall of Oakham Castle.

of the classical styles, and of these the Corinthian seems to have made the greatest impression upon the minds of the workmen. We find

in the Saxon capital the rudest possible imitation of the Corinthian volute, and it forms also one of the most striking marks of the early Norman. The volutes at the angles are distinct, and in place of the caulicoli, a plain block is left, as may be seen in the example from the chapel in the Tower of London, and this form, with some modifications, was in use in early Norman work, and is also very valuable in distinguishing this style. This imitation of the Corinthian capital continued throughout the style,

0.JFHITE

NORMAN WINDOW, Steetley, Derbyshire.

ples the abacus is no longer square, but has its angles cut off; and in some instances it is circular, thus showing the transition to the cir

TRANSITION NORMAN CAPITAL, Canterbury Cathedral.

cular form of the style that next came into use.

The arches were almost universally round-headed, until the period of the transition, when the pointed form was used along with or frequently instead of it. The pointed arch must not be taken as a certain criterion of transition date, as we have examples of it combined with solid early Norman piers, as at Malmesbury Abbey; but these examples are rare, and the mixture of the two forms may generally be taken as evidence of transition. The windows were universally round-headed, until the transition period. In the early examples they are quite plain, but they had afterwards frequentlysmall shafts in the jambs, as at Steetley, or were enriched with the zigzag, as at St. Cross Sometimes they were divided into two lights by a small shaft, and these again were frequently included under a large arch.

NORMAN WINDOW, St. Cross, Hampshire.

The doorways were the features on which the Norman architects lavished their decorations in

of the church has been rebuilt, the doorway has been preserved. Throughout the genuine Norman, the doorways were round-headed, but became pointed in the transition period. The door itself is often square-headed, and the space called the tympanum, between that and the arch, is frequently filled with sculpture, representing the three persons of the Trinity, saints, or allegorical devices, as at Barfreston, Ely, Rochester, Malmesbury, &c. The doorways were sometimes six or eight times recessed, and had as many shafts in the jambs; the capitals, imposts, jambs, and arches being elaborately carved with the mouldings peculiar to the style. The most prevalent of these is the zigzag or chevron. It is used in all parts of Norman buildings where ornament could be introduced, and at all periods of the style. It is the most easily executed of all decorations, and is therefore employed by various savage nations, for the ornaments of their weapons and canoes. We find it likewise in debased Roman work; but the most ancient example known, is one on the Nineveh sculptures, brought home by Mr. Layard, where it occurs round the head of a window, as in Norman times, but in this instance it consists of only a single line. The other mouldings used are so numerous, that only a few of the most common can be enumerated. These are the lozenge, the billet, both round and square, the saw-tooth, the cable, the nail-head, the chain, the beak-head, the pellet,

INTERLACING ARCADE, Norwich Cathedral.

The characters here given refer chiefly to the style in its purity; but soon after the middle of the twelfth century, towards the end of the reign of Henry II., a change came over it, by the introduction of the pointed arch. This seems to have been caused by the necessity of vaulting over spaces with unequal sides. It is evident, that though the semicircular arch might suit for the longer space, it would not for the shorter one, and therefore the use of the pointed arch was needed; and this once introduced, its convenience and applicability became so evident, that the use of the semicircular arch in the beginning of the next century, was entirely superseded by the

I See cut, St. Edmundsbury gateway, vol. i. p. 247.

a few existing remains, which, though imperfect, can still enable us to trace their original arrangement. The usual ground plan of the house seems to have been a parallelogram, comprising merely a large room or hall, which occupied the entire height of the building, and two rooms at the end of the hall, the lower being the cellar, and the upper the solar or sleeping-room, which served also for a sitting-room, and was in fact the only private room in the house. To these a kitchen and other out houses were attached; and in large houses there was a chapel. The king's houses at the time seem to have had no other accommodation. The hall served for the common living room of the master and his dependants. At one end the floor was raised a little higher than the rest, and on this raised part, which was called the dais, was placed crossways the principal table of the hall, and in the body were the tables for the servants and inferior guests. The floor of the hall served also for their sleeping place, the solar being

west front, Croyland Abbey.

in both cases the round-headed and pointed arcades are used alternately, for the purpose of ornament. The Temple Church, London, and Oxford Cathedral, may be mentioned as good specimens of this period of transition, but by far the most valuable is Canterbury Cathedral. The rebuilding of this church was completed in 1110, and it was dedicated in 1130; but in 1172 it was almost entirely destroyed by fire, and the monks employed a Frenchman, named William of Sens, to rebuild it. He had nearly completed the choir in 1179, when having been injured by a fall, he resigned the work into the hands of another master, called William the Englishman, who continued the work, and completed what is called "Becket's Crown" in 1184. The whole of these proceedings are minutely recorded by Gervase, a monk of the place, who witnessed them, and his narrative is particularly valuable for distinguishing between early and late Norman work. If we examine the remaining portions of the old building, we shall find that they agree exactly in character with the early Norman work at Lincoln and elsewhere, while the portions built between 1172 and 1184 have the pointed arch, and the other features of the transition period.'

as at Oakham Castle, was frequently divided into three parts by rows of pillars and arches, like the nave and aisles of a church; between these pillars curtains were hung, and by this means the aisles were separated from the body of the hall, and the sleeping apartments rendered more private. We find by Saxon MSS., particularly that of Cadmon, that this arrangement prevailed also

THE JEWS' HOUSE, Lincoln.

DIVEWITT se

munication with the upper story was by an ternal staircase. A house of this kind is sho in the Bayeux Tapestry. The Jews' House, L