soil, but of the proprietor also, and, as such, were bound to serve him at home or a-field without wages, except the clothing and sustenance which he was pleased to give them. It was not merely that they were bought and sold with the land, like cattle or other property-for this was also the destiny of the churls, who considered themselves as freemen notwithstanding-but they were bequeathed by will on the death of their masters, and not only they, but their posterity to the remotest generations, in the fashion of a modern entail. While the ceorl also was protected by the laws in such liberty as he possessed, the slave might be confined, whipped, or branded without appeal, and was frequently yoked to the car or plough; and in this way, we read of "teams of men" in the inventories of the day, to distinguish them from horses and oxen.' Such was the condition of the slaves, or theows, as they were denominated among the Anglo-Saxons. But i this, also, there were several ameliorating circumstances. Thus the practice of manumission, which was recommended as a Christian duty, was frequent, especially at the hour of death, and by the wills of testators. A serf might also buy out his freedom by a little extra industry, for which he had many opportunities. But the greatest blow at slavery was struck by the institutions of Alfred, which decreed that when a Christian man was purchased as a slave, he should only serve for six years, but on the seventh be set at liberty. In this way it was decided that, in the ordinary course of nature, and without any other interference, slavery should gradually die out in England. As to the kinds of people upon whom this unfortunate lot of slavery had fallen, it is perhaps not very difficult to ascertain them. As the Saxons had been accustomed to the institution in their own country, they would scarcely scruple to continue it in their new home, and retain in serfage the classes whom they had been wont to hold in thraldom in Germany. But besides their own hereditary bondmen, who were of the same race with themselves, there were the vanquished Britons, over whom they probably exercised that right of the stronger which every country has used in turn, and whom they converted not only into ceorls, but in many cases into theows. Finally, there were but too many Saxons who either had forfeited their liberty by their crimes, or been fain vasions, parents sold their own children, to save them from a death of hunger. In this way each noble household was abundantly supplied with such kind of service, as is evident from the single example of Alcuin, the Saxon abbot, who had 10,000 slaves to his own share. But besides these numerous serfs, the princes and eorls had retinues, composed of men of a higher grade. These were huscarles (house ceorls), who waited upon their master's person at home, or upon a journey; and cnihts, or knights. As this last word bulked so largely during the Norman ascendency, it is necessary to mention, that among the Anglo-Saxons it only signified a boy, afterwards a servant who was not a slave, and finally, a military attendant. In this last capacity the cnihts were distinguished for their fidelity and devotedness, as was manifested by an instance that occurred during the period of the Heptarchy. When Cynewulf, King of Mercia, was about to be assassinated, his military attendants were offered immunity if they ceased to resist; but they scorned the bribe, and died to a man in the hopeless defence of their master. When Cyneheard, his murderer, a few hours after, was attacked by a greatly superior force, who sought to revenge their sovereign's death, his cnihts, who might have escaped, rallied in his defence, and fell one by one before he could be reached. Before turning our attention to the social and domestic life of the Anglo-Saxons, and the homes they inhabited, it is necessary to advert to the condition of their ecclesiastical and public architecture. When Christianity was established in the seventh century in England, the first churches partook of the rude simplicity of the period, being constructed only of timber and roofed with thatch, as in the instances of Lindesfarne and York, while nothing but the altar was of stone. Of this primitive kind of edifice, the church at Greenstead is believed to be an ex SOUTH VIEW OF GREENSTEAD CHURCH, Essex.-Drawn 1748. to sell it in consequence of their poverty, out | isting specimen. According to ancient legends, of whom the ranks of servitude were con- this simple structure was erected to serve as a stantly supplied. A slave-market, indeed, was not unknown in England; and in the frequent famines that occurred, chiefly from the Danish in Sharon Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons. 2 Strutt.-It is to the various works of this indefatigable entiquarian that we are mainly indebted for our knowledge of the condition, costume, and manners of the Anglo-Saxons. This intimation will make it the less necessary to refer to his name as our authority in the following pages. shrine for the body of St. Edmund, A.D. 1010. | tions; and another fragment, supposed to have The nave is entirely composed of the trunks of WEST END OF GREENSTEAD CHURCH, Essex, large oaks, split and roughly hewed on both sides; they are set upright, and close to each other, being let into a sill at the bottom, and a plate at the top, where they are fastened with wooden pins. This was the whole of the original fabric, which still remains entire, although much decayed by time. It is twenty-nine feet nine inches long, fourteen feet wide, and five feet six inches high on the side which supported the primitive roof. The addition at the east end is of Anglo-Norman architecture, and forms a further evidence of the antiquity of this timber edifice. In the seventh century, churches in England began to be built of stone; and of this early ecclesiastical masonry specimens are still to be found in the remains of the monas- COLUMN IN MONKWEARMOUTH CHURCH. teries erected by Benedict Biscop, at Wearmouth, A.D. 674, and at Jarrow, A.D. 684. Those in the former place consist of a banded cylindrical column that has be CARVED FRAGMENT, Monkwearmouth Church. longed to a small window, and of very rude design, but which corresponds precisely with some columns delineated in Anglo-Saxon illumina belonged to the same edifice, being part of a string course, on which are rude carvings of animals, &c. The architectural zeal of Biscop was manifested not only by the sacred edifices he erected, but his diligence in bringing foreign artisans into England; but amidst the growing improvement, it is evident that the architectural styles both of the Saxons and the Normans were only imitations of the Romanesque style of Italy, and that the chief difference lay in the degree of ability in imitating a debased original. The towers of Earls-Barton Church in Northamptonshire, and of Sompting Church in Sussex TOWER OF SOMPTING CHURCH, micircular and diagonal pieces, which give The it a great similarity to wood quartering. quoins are of the description of masonry which is always identified with the Anglo-Saxon style, and called long and short work, from their being ar ranged with stones of equal size, placed alternately in a vertical and horizontal position upon each other, thus bearing resemblance to debased rustic work. The walls of the tower of St. Peter's Church, Barton-upon-Humber, are built in a similar manner to those just described, of rubble stone and grout, interspersed with a sort of framework of projecting freestone in' compartments, and incasing the doors and windows; the openings of the windows in the upper story are covered by two stones, inclining together, WINDOW, Barnack Church, Northamptonshire. without any curvature." This peculiarity in the | of the windows, and form a kind of balustrade, Anglo-Saxon bell towers is not recognized in the Norman architecture, nor in any other, except in some of the numerous tombs of Asia Minor; and it may be presumed to have originated in the transition from the practice of executing edifices composed of timber, to that of working in stone. The heads of windows and doors in Anglo-Saxon architecture are triangular or semicircular; the former shape seems to have been copied from the frequently represented in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts. These appear in the tower of Earls-Barton, Jarrow, Monk wearmouth, and other churches. Of the genius of Anglo-Saxon sculpture we have a few examples, chiefly consisting of crosses and fonts, in which the human figure and animals are sometimes rudely carved, but the adornments of interlaced knot-work and foliage display some ingenuity of design and execution, as in the font of Bridekirk, Cumberland, on which is a Saxon inscription, evidently part of the original design. DOORWAY OF THE TOWER OF EARLS-BARTON CHURCH. debased Roman form which is to be seen on sarcophagi in the catacombs of Rome. "The extreme of the triangle rests upon a plain abacus, the impost in some cases projecting from the wall." The semicircular arch is the most frequent, the earliest of which were constructed of large tiles, probably borrowed from the debris of Roman edifices. These tiles were placed on end, and the spaces between, which are nearly equal in width, filled in with rubble-work; the jambs or imposts of the arches were generally of stone, as well as the walls, in which were sometimes laid courses of tile, either in horizontal layers, or in the diagonal manner called herringbone, being evidently an imitation of the Romano-British structures. A massive but rude imitation of the Roman models before them seems to have characterized the works of the Saxon architects. Their mouldings were few and simple, consisting of a square-faced projection, with a chamfer or splay on the upper or lower edge. Another feature in the Anglo-Saxon bell towers is to be remarked in the rude columns which divide the openings BALUSTER WINDOW, Monk wearmouth Church, Durham. FONT IN BRIDEKIRK CHURCH, Cumberland. Of the domestic architecture of the AngloSaxons, all we can learn is only to be gathered from a few scattered hints, which show that the houses of our Saxon ancestors were piles constructed without art, or mere imitations of the Roman edifices which existed among them. Such is the testimony of William of Malmesbury,' who contrasts the low and mean dwellings of the people with those stately edifices which the Normans afterwards introduced. That such was the condition even of the palaces of kings at the introduction of Christianity, is apparent from the speech of the venerable thegn to Edwin, King of Northumbria, when the question of adopting the new faith was discussed. He compared the state of man to the entrance and departure of a swallow; and from the whole picture, we see nothing better than the king and his nobles seated round a fire in the midst of the apartment, from which the smoke was allowed to escape as it best might, while the whole building was so open, that, even in the winter storm, a bird could enter and depart at pleasure. When Alfred had settled the Danelagh, and commenced a life of study in earnest, we also find that he was obliged to invent a lantern, to guard his candles from being blown out by the winds that swept through his apartment. As often happens, however, all this squalor and discomfort was contrasted with the occasional richness of the furniture; and 3 This historian, who wrote after the Norman conquest, abounds with incidental notices of the manners and customs of the Anglo-Saxons prior to that event. the walls within, notwithstanding their apertures, and the dust with which they were begrimed, were hung with rich tapestry. These hangings are frequently mentioned in the inventories of the day; and in the houses of the wealthy and noble they were generally of silk, sometimes adorned with rich needle-work of gold, representing birds and other animals. One of these, mentioned by Ingulphus,' which was made in the ninth century, represented the destruction of Troy; and another, wrought by Edelfleda, for the church of Ely, was embroidered with the actions of her husband Brithnod, Duke of Northumberland, in needle-work of gold. The chairs, benches, and stools, were sometimes covered with the same kind of tapestry, and the wood-work ornamented with carved likenesses of the heads and legs of animals. The tables also were rich, being sometimes described as made of silver, and even of gold, while the same costly materials were abundantly used in the manufacture of drinkingcups, and the furniture of a banquet. In these consisted the chief wealth of their owners, and they were at any time convertible into money. Besides the above articles, a silver mirror is mentioned in Dugdale's Monasticon as an accompaniment of the toilet, and silver candelabra and cressets occur in the notices of the period. To these may be added the indispensable convenience of a hand-bell, with which the lord or lady 2. GLASS VESSELS, found in Saxon graves.3-1 and 4, found at Cuddison, Oxon; 2 and 3, from a cemetery in East Kent.-Akerman's Pagan Saxondom. made glass for lamps and other uses, and gave instruction in those manufactures to the English." When the hour of rest arrived, the tables of the hall were removed, and beds laid in their places, where those who had feasted during the day betook themselves to repose, each man with his weapons above his head. This, however, was during the earlier stage of the Saxon occupation of England; for afterwards, as appears by an illuminated MS., bedsteads, with a roof shaped like that of a house, and hung with curtains, were introduced; and in the Anglo-Saxon poem of Judith, we read also of one being surrounded with the luxury of a "golden fly-net." As for the beds themselves, they were SAXON HAND-BELIS.-1, found at Little Wilbraham. Neville's sacks stuffed with soft materials, furnished with Saxon Obsequies.-2, from Strutt. summoned the attendants. As for cups and vessels of glass, these were rarely used in England before the period of the Norman conquest; and Bede mentions that the people were "ignorant and helpless in the art of glass-making." The same authority informs us that Benedict Biscop, who Secretary of William the Conqueror. This writer is also a valuable authority upon the condition of the Anglo-Saxons. * Probably they were only overlaid or ornamented with these precious metals. In the same manner, Turgot informs us that Malcolm Canmore, King of Scotland, was served at table in vessels of gold and silver, and then adds, that at least they were over-gilt. These vessels are of a fine material. No. 2 is of extremely delicate fabric, and of a rich brown tint. It is so exceedingly light, as scarcely to be felt in the hand. No. 3 is of very transparent light green glass; it holds exactly a pint. Drinking-glasses pillows of straw, and the usual complement of blankets and sheets. These accounts, as will at once be seen, only apply to the houses of the noble and wealthy; what kind of habitations were used by the lower classes, and how they were furnished, the chroniclers of the period have not informed us. distinguished by the same peculiarities have been found in the Frank cemeteries of France and Germany. The form of those glasses, not being adapted to set down until emptied, is conjectured to have originated the name of tumbler, given to modern drinking glasses. Local tradition accounts for several outlandish names, such as Tyzack, Henzell, &c., still flourishing among the Tyne glassworks, by stating that Biscop's artificers planted themselves on the Tyne, and established the first English glass-works in that quarter, which continued to be carried on by their descendants for several centuries afterwards. This mention of the Anglo-Saxon houses suggests the subject of in-door and domestic life; and here the department of cookery claims our first attention. But on this we must confess that our knowledge is extremely limited. The people, مال SAXON BED.-Cotton MS. Claud. B. IV. colewort appears to have held the chief place. Bread was not so plentiful among the Saxons as animal food, and was therefore more sparingly used, and wheaten bread was a luxury confined to the tables of the rich. From various pictures in the MSS. of this period, a pretty distinct idea can be formed of an Anglo-Saxon banquet. The table was commonly covered with a table-cloth, and abundantly provided with knives and spoons, but no forks, dishes of various shapes and sizes; loaves of bread, and services of soup and fish; and cups or drinking-horns, which were still more numerous thau the dishes. Sometimes the table-cloth was so large as to cover the knees of the guests, and serve the purposes of a napkin. The roast meats were gene rally presented by servants on the spits to the company, and each man cut from the offered joint, with his MS. represents the servants kneeling in the performance of this duty. It is pleasing to remark, also, that at these tables the women were seated on equal terms with the men, instead of being kept apart, or obliged to wait upon the other sex, as was generally the case in a rude state of society. In pledging each other with the cup at table, a it is well known, were vigorous feeders; but | knife, the portion he required. One picture in before the arrival of the more refined Normans, the Cotton it is probable that quantity rather than quality was the chief mark of their solicitude. The principal animal food used among them was pork; and the landholders kept such large herds of swine, that the swineherd was an important functionary among the rural offices of a farm establishment. This was the more natural, as swine could be easily maintained in the woods, which were of common access before the Norman game-laws were introduced; and fattened upon the fruit of the beech and oak, that required no cultivation. Mutton was not so abundantly used, as the Saxons appear to have valued the sheep more for its wool than its flesh; but beef, venison, and fowls were common articles of sustenance. In striking contrast to the Britons, however, the Anglo-Saxons were partial to a fish diet, and next to pork, eels appear to have been their principal articles of food. These were carefully fattened in eel-ponds and inclosures, and were so abundant, that they were sometimes paid by the thousand as rent. Besides eating every kind of fish used in the present day, we learn that the Saxons also ate the porpoise. The processes of cooking food among them were broiling, baking, and roasting, but chiefly boiling; and a drawing in one of the Saxon MSS. represents a caldron resting on a trivet, with the fire beneath, while the cook stands beside it with an iron flesh-fork, for the purpose of removing the meat when it is ready. In boiling meat they also seasoned it with various herbs, among which SAXON BANQUET.-Cotton MS. Tib. C. 7. his curious practice prevailed-by no means unnecessary in the revels of such a pugnacious people-which was also common at a comparatively late period in the Highlands of Scotland. This was, for the person pledged to hold up knife or sword, in token that he would protect the drinker from assault or assassination while he was thus off his guard. This custom, we are informed by William of Malmesbury, originated in the treacherous murder of Edward the Martyr, who was stabbed in the back while drinking a cup of wine which his step-mother Elfrida had |