and evil. He called the first unity, light, the right hand, equality, stability, and a straight line. He named the second, binary, darkness, the left hand, inequality, instability, and a curved line. He divided everything into the infinite and the finite, good and evil, life and death, day and night. He attributed whiteness to the good principle, and blackness to the bad principle. In accordance with this Pythagorean idea, Virgil. makes Æneas sacrifice a black sheep to the stormy winds of winter, and a white one to the propitious zephyrs. Nigram hiemi pecudem, zephyris felicibus albam. All these remarkable contrasts among the physical effects of nature, were expressed by the heathen priesthood in the most striking language, while the imagery of the sacred fables, and the figures on the holy monuments, were ingeniously adapted to illustrate the broad line of demarcation which separated the two principles of light and darkness.

"The alternate residence of Proserpine, for example, in the realms of darkness and light, for periods of six months in each, is an allegorical fiction founded on the doctrine of the two principles. Proserpine was the Moon. When she was invisible to the inhabitants of the earth, she was supposed to live with Pluto: when she was visible, she was imagined to dwell with Ceres. This secret formed part of the sacred science taught to the initiated in the mysteries of Proserpine and Ceres, celebrated at Eleusis. The fable of Adonis, in whose honour mysteries were instituted in Phoenicia, is of a similar character. His pretended residence in hell during six months with Proserpine, and with Venus in heaven during the following six months, expressed the route of the Sun in the superior and inferior hemispheres, of which the former was affected to the principle of light, and the latter to the principle of darkness. The fable of Atys, and the mysteries of Cybéle, are founded on a kindred origin."

With the philosphical dogmas that were propagated agreeably to such sportings of the imagination, as indulged in by the ancients, we need not puzzle ourselves, seeing that our main design is to give specimens of Mr. Duncan's scheme and manner of interpreting the varieties of heathen belief in matters of religion. Before, however, passing from the chapter in which the ancient doctrine concerning the two principles of good and evil are discussed, it will be satisfactory to have the solution which our author arrives at on this. subject, and which is the safest one that, with our limited faculties, we can yield to. He regards the two terms as standing relatively together, and not as conveying separable and positive meanings; so that we can form no distinct idea of the one abstractedly from the other. Just as in the case of the terms Beauty and Ugliness; our idea of the former depends upon that of the latter, and vice versa,— each serving as a term of comparison with the other" In the sense," says Mr. Duncan, "we attach to the words Good and Evil, as conveying simply and strictly ideas of relation, the existence of the one being absolutely indispensable to our knowledge of the other, there appears to be no impiety, nor any derogation from the Divine benevolence, in attributing evil as well as good to the

First Cause." Besides, the evidences so abundant of the Deity's consummate wisdom, and the nature, may we not add, the necessity for man of a state of probationary trial, all go as counterbalancing arguments in support of the view now adopted.

Our author in his ninth chapter, treats of the Soul of the Universe as understood by the ancients. The general character of the theory may be gathered from the opening paragraphs :—

"There is a silent revolution constantly at work in the under currents of society, hidden from vulgar eyes, and unfelt in the secret progress of its operation, but which, after the lapse of time, forces its way to the surface, and breaking up ancient systems and ancient opinions, creates new feelings, new habits, and new modes of thinking among mankind. Wise is the legislator who can look beneath the surface of affairs, who has prescience to anticipate the period of change, and judgment to prepare the minds of men for the new order of things! In this wisdom the ancient priesthood were most eminent, for without destroying the old idolatry, which would have too rudely shocked popular prejudices, they retained it in its essence, while they adapted its exterior forms to the increasing intelligence of the age. Stare super antiquas vias, was their prudent policy. Thus steering between the two extremes of conservative quietism and destructive innovation, they preserved the foundations of the original building; and while the unsightly parts of the old fabric were removed, modern embellishments, suited to the genius and spirit of a more enlightened laity, were judiciously introduced. If, in the early stages of society, we perceive a rude and monstrous superstition, deifying the inanimate objects of nature, and mistaking effects for causes, we may also discover, in the religious ideas of advancing civilization, the same raw material of primitive ignorance, however skilfully concealed under the meretricious decorations of art. We find the same canvass, though the figures painted on it, are conceived in an improved taste, and executed with a higher finish.

"This alteration in the heathen system took place, when philosophy had engrafted itself on superstition, and purified it from its primitive grossness. Then it was that the doctrine of the soul of the universe was inculcated, and nature, no longer considered as a mere machine, was believed to be intelligent and animated by an etherial principle."

In the next chapter we are introduced to the subject of the Worship of Idols. One parapraph must serve to indicate the author's method of interpretation here. He says,—

"Nature as a whole, and each of the component parts of nature, formed the objects of ancient religion. In the earlier stages of society, the world was supposed to be a purely material machine. As civilization advanced, this opinion was superseded by the doctrine which taught that nature was vitally animated by some unknown etherial principle; and, at length, it was believed that nature, and all its parts, was not only animated, but endued with intelligence, and the whole universe governed by a divine intellectual soul. The idols of antiquity, the statues and paintings of the gods, and the animals, plants, and minerals selected for adoration, formed,

as it were, an immense mirror, which reflected the entire face of nature, and the working of its different phenomena. In this view of the subject, images occupy but the second rank in the chain of objects of worship, and whoever desires to sieze the real spirit of the system, must detach his thoughts from the mere idol, and fix them on the original type, and consider the material symbol as the expression of an intellectual idea, which the priesthood endeavoured to render palpable to the senses of the vulgar through the medium of statues and paintings."

The last chapter in the work is upon the Mysteries and Initiations, which at certain stages of ancient heathenism were resorted to and established for the purpose of upholding religious opinion; and like most of the other branches in pagan belief and adoration, these were closely connected with natural phenomena and astronomical observations. Take some account of the Mysteries of Bona Dea :

"It has already been remarked on the authority of Cicero, that no man was permitted to pronounce the name of this goddess, and the origin of her worship was lost in the remoteness of time. Ovid states, that the adoration of Tauras, the father of Bona Dea, was introduced into Italy by Evander, who copied it from the Arcadians, and he makes this declaration in speaking of the festivals celebrated at the kalends of May, the precise time at which the mysteries of Fatua, or Fauna, the good goddess, were observed, at the cosmical rising of the she goat Amalthea. It was then that the Romans made offerings on the altars of the Lares, their tutelary household gods, and the Bona Dea was reverenced as the tutelary goddess of the whole Roman empire."

It must be evident from these extracts that Mr. Duncan has furnished a very complete key to the old systems of heathenism, as developed especially in Greece and Rome. The work, too, is cheap and of a conveniently portable form. Its contents ought undoubtedly to be made familiar to the students of the ancient classics; while to antiquarians, historians, moralists, lawyers, and religionists of every description, it affords abundance of most instructive and curious matter. To one particular class of philanthropists we pointedly recommend the volume, merely making use of the author's suggestions and words as found in his preface, with which we close:

"The exposition of the Cosmogonies and Theogonies of heathenism may be rendered useful to the missionary cause, particularly in Eastern Countries, where the traditions of remote ages still exist. A teacher visiting those nations in the hope of converting the aborigines, ought to be fully acquainted with the general principles on which the prevailing heathenism is founded, and had this qualification been rigidly enforced, we hesitate not to affirm that much greater progress would have been made in the dissemination of the Gospel than has hitherto been effected. Before the Missionary can hope to introduce a new system, he ought to remove the existing prejudices which militate against its reception, and this he can only accomplish by knowing the character and the tactics of the enemy he is about to attack.'

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ART. X.-The Popular Songs of Ireland. Collected and Edited, with Introductions and Notes, by T. CROFTON CROKER, Esq. London : Colburn. 1839.

JUDGING of Irish popular ministrelsy, from what we have listened to, or caught by snatches; that is to say, as doled out by the sons and daughters of the Emerald Isle, sometimes in the streets, and a few times when frolick has tempted us to repay their humorous sallies, and stimulate the reckless exuberance of their hearts with good cheer, we should say that it is quite national or patriotic and home-loving in its way, and therefore strikingly characteristic. One is not to expect much poetry in these effusions, or regularly sustained sentiment of any sort. The fact is, that want of regularity is one of the most distinguishing features in their composition; for, if we except the circumstance of their being uniformly the reverse of dull, drowsy, and motionless, it is impossible to predict, however plaintive may be the theme, however merry, or however arousing, when and how the bard may fly off, and sing in an opposite tune to that with which he set out, though all the while he may be quite innocent of intending or perceiving the incongruity. This irregularity, it will at once be admitted, is perfectly and amusingly characteristic of itself; and not less so is the manner of their various and ever-changing sentiments; while the subjects almost universally chosen are equally descriptive and national; the "Shillelah," the "Shamrock," " Whisky," "Potatoes," and "St. Patrick," very frequently being found blended with war, conquest, disaster, bloodshed, love, and lament. We are alluding to those pieces which are chiefly popular among the peasantry, or the bulk of the people, many of which must have been written by persons in a like sphere.

So characteristic, indeed, are Irish songs of the people and the country, that, according to Mr. Croker's opinion, the history of the nation, during some of its most eventful epochs, might be gathered from them; a manner of history not only curious and interesting, but genuine and impartial, being a sure outlet of popular feeling and true embodiment of its changeful impulses." What has been said," continues he, "of French songs, applies perfectly to those of Ireland. The Frenchman' (and so does the Irishman) 'sings his conquests, his prosperity, his defeats, even his miseries and mjsfortunes. Conquering or conquered, in plenty or want, happy or unhappy, sorrowful or gay, he always sings; and one would say that the song is his natural expression. In fine, in all situations in which we would speak of the French' (or the Irish) we might always ask, as the late King of Sardinia did, " Well! how goes the little song?"

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It becomes absolutely necessary, manifestly, if we read such songs, for gathering historical meanings from them, that we be made sure

of the periods to which they refer, and the national or local circumstances. Also Mr. Croker, we must allow, is qualified beyond most men, in regard to Ireland, to perform the office of annotator; and appears to us in the present case to have given proofs of accuracy and heartiness, so far as he has gone, and with the specimens selected and illustrated. His design was to have published a series of songs, which would have told the history of Ireland from the Battle of the Boyne to our day; but finding that the collection must have filled several volumes of a similar size to that before us, and a doubt arising relative to the profitableness of the speculation, in a pecuniary view, the process of selecting has in consequence been resorted to, so that we have neither a complete nor plainly connected record of the kind proposed, nor demonstratively the best selection that might have been made, the editor's character, talents, knowledge, and industry being the only vouchers.

Leaving out of view, therefore, the chronologically historical character or evidences furnished by these songs, and viewing them merely as generally illustrative of the Irish people, as respects the manner and the subjects of their feelings and thoughts, we shall find specimens in no slight degree interesting. Nor can we do better than begin with the first song, which has St. Patrick for its hero, while, Paddy-like, the anachronisms and incongruous allusions are as strangely jumbled, as any one could desire of a son of Erin when celebrating the arrival in the island of his patron Saint. Our readers must figure Patrick voyaging into Bantry Bay upon the back of a whale; and his mission being to frighten and drive old Nick away, no longer to mislead the "finest peasantry," he takes measures acccordingly. One of his politic schemes was as follows:

"Then he spoke to the nation-
My sweet congregation.-

You've spirits remaining that's stronger than he ;

Sure ye knows what I means—

They bewilder your brains

They're as clear as the streamlet that flows through the green.

But stronger than Sampson,
Who pulled post and lamps on

His enemie's head,

"Till he kilt them stone dead;

And the name of the spirit I mean is poteen,

I exhort ye, don't stick, sirs,

To those Devil's elixirs,

Of a Patrick's day in the morning!

The Saint fell asleep

And the Firbolgs all creep

For some cruiskeens of water unholy, but tastely.

With this essence of sins

Soon they filled up their skins:

When the Saint he awoke they were beastly.