the series? Or, are they variations of many | types; and if so, of how many? M. Flourens says that Geoffroy's ideas on mutability of species, and on the filiation of present with antediluvian species, are to be "separated from that grand and beautiful series of laws which constitute his doctrine;" but, in saying this, M. Flourens appears to us to misconceive that doctrine, of which they are but the application. Geoffroy maintained that there was one type, one plan, according to which the whole animal kingdom was constructed. Cuvier maintained there were four types, four plans. And as long as the question is debated in the terms and within the limits fixed by Cuvier, we cannot but regard his argument as victorious.* It is indeed obvious, that the structure of a polype is not identical with that of a mollusc, or a man: form, organs, number of organs, materials, and functions--all not only differ, but differ so as to be irreducible to one and the same type. An animal possessing a complex skeleton is not uniform in its composition with an animal possessing no skeleton. Cuvier's argument therefore consists in a facile enumeration of characteristic differences which strike the minds of his audience as irresistible evidence. Geoffroy feels that he is not comprehended, therefore not answered; but in vain does he struggle to get his views into clear, conspicuous formulas. The nearest approach to it is where, sensible of the misconception of his phrase, "unity of plan," he explains that it does not mean unity of distribution and material, but "unity of system in the composition and arrangement of organic parts." Thus a palace is not a hut, is not composed of the same materials, nor constructed according to the same distribution of those materials; but hut and palace are both the products of the same principle of architecture, and are both fundamentally the same in form and function; before a palace could be built there must have been the hut-type from which to start; no palace, cottage, castle, or dwelling-house, will ever be intellectually separable from that primitive type. The idea of Geoffroy appears to us to be this: Unity of composition is not to be sought in the form of animals, nor in their assemblage of parts, but in the progressive repetition and complication of parts issuing from a common centre, and formed according to a common plan or process. Let the organic materials be represented by the letters of the alphabet, and we may say there is unity of composition in language; the laws of grammar are constant, amid all the varieties of phrase: speech has its types of verb, noun, adjective, and so on. Let our phrase be simple or complex, the plan is the same. Thus, "Hold!-Hold this book. Hold this excellent book. Hold in your jewelled hand this very complicated and world influencing book." These sentences may stand as fanciful representatives of the progressive series of animals from the simple to the most complex; and in them we detect one plan amid various materials-one law of structure, varied only in its details. Or, as a truer analogy, take the serial development of the sciences. No positive thinker will doubt that the sciences are one, though various; they have a method which is one, an organization which is one, and they are developed in serial progression, from the most simple to the most complex, each being but a repetition, under more complex conditions, of the preceding. Biology is as widely separated from Physics as a mammal is from a mollusc; yet the historian of development knows that there is unity of composition in one as in the other. This is an adumbration of the truth; but greater precision and the aid of another series of ideas are requisite before Unity of Composition can be definitively established; it is only by connecting this theory with another, viewing it as the statical law of which development is the dynamical law, that, in our opinion, it can be accepted. In closing this brief exposition of the doctrine, we have only to remind the reader that the exposition was necessarily confined to generalities, and that with the space at disposal there could have been no attempt to set forth details, or to give any survey of Geoffroy's various contributions to special questions of comparative anatomy. Enough has been gained if the foregoing pages lead to a serious study of the works of a remarkable thinker, and if some definite idea has been given of the place occupied in the development of philosophy by ETIENNE GEOFFROY ST. HILAIRE. From the London Quarterly Review. CHRISTIAN POPULATIONS OF TURKEY.* dan expulsion on a grand scale cost Europe much blood and many cruelties, and was followed by no commensurate results; what will be the manner and the issue of the second? Without attempting any positive answer to this momentous question, let us, at least, try to form as correct an idea as possible of the numbers, religious and moral state, political tendencies and relations of the Christian populations which, on the European side of the Bosphorus at least, are preparing to supplant their masters. We shall first take the provinces separately, and then review the whole. It must be premised that, upon the PART of European Turkey was subdued, | moral benefit to humanity. One Mohammeand Adrianople made its capital, for nearly a hundred years before that memorable 1453, when Mahomet II. planted the crescent on the tower of Constantinople; and, during this long period, the Greek empire existed by a kind of sufferance, until it became the convenience of the conqueror to strike the decisive blow. By an emphatic retribution, the Turkish state is now in precisely similar circumstances; dying by inches, propped up by the pillows of diplomacy, until some relaxation in the vigilance of European powers, or some project of dismemberment accepted by them, or the impatience of his own Christian population, or the re-important head of population, calculations vived fanaticism of the Moslems, give the signal of his fall. Another great conquering empire is about to descend heavily into the metropolis of nations; the tenants of the grave may be summoned from beneath to meet her; the mighty dead - Pharaohs, Persian, Greek, and Roman-rise from their sepulchral chambers, and hail the last of the Ottomans: "Art thou also become weak as we are? Art thou become like unto us? Thy pomp is brought down to the grave, and the noise of thy viols. The worm is become thy couch, and the earth-worm thy coverlet." Our descendants will speak of the time when the Turks were in the southeast of Europe, as we do of the time when the Moors were in the south-west; but the parallel is so far inexact, that future travellers will not find in Constantinople those monuments of Mohammedan art and grandeur which we admire in Spain. Assuming the fall or metamorphose of the Turkish empire to be but a question of time, it is naturally asked, What is to come after it? Unfortunately, we know, from the example of Spain, that the cross may succeed the crescent, without any perceptible • The Frontier Lands of the Christian and Turk: comprising Travels in the Regions of the Lower Danube, in 1850-51. By a British Resident of Twenty Years in the East. 2 vols. 8vo. London: Bentley. 1853. are very uncertain in a country in which registers and a regular census are unknown. They now exist, indeed, in the Principalities of the Danube, but not in the provinces under the immediate sway of the Porte. We can only try to approximate to the truth by comparing authorities. The first volume of Wigger's Kirchliche Statistik exhibits, perhaps, the most exact view of the relative strength of the different religious communities; but their absolute strength appears to be somewhat understated. Let us begin with Moldavia and Wallachia. They are inhabited by the mixed race called Roumans, consisting of the old Dacian stock, latinized by numerous Roman colonies, and mingled, at a later period, with Bulgarians and other Sclavonic emigrants. They speak a dialect derived from Latin; and their religion is that of the Greek Church. Turkish Moldavia has 1,430,000 inhabitants; Wallachia, 2,420,000; a multitude of Gypsies are included in the census. Those provinces opening in rich broad plains to the northeast have been successively overrun by all the barbarians who have come from the steppes of Asia, and have been the constant theatre of their wars with the nations of the west and south, as they were more recently the battle-fields of the Turks and Russians. Their native princes were alternately allies and vassals of the Hungarians, the Poles, and the Turks. At the peace of Adrianople, in 1829, they were at last constituted distinct states, tributary to the Porte, and protected by the Czar; it being moreover agreed that, for the future, no Mohammedans should be allowed to settle north of the Danube. The tribute amounts to three millions of piastres, not quite £30,000. The Hospodars were to be chosen, at first for seven years, (but it has been since determined, for life,) by an electoral college of Boyards of two classes, of Bishops, and of Deputies of districts. The National Assembly consists, also, of Bishops, Boyards, and Deputies; but it cannot meddle with external organic change. The clergy, more especially the superior clergy, are docile instruments of Russia; and the Russian Consuls at Bucharest and Jassy are practically Lords-lieutenant, disposing of all favors, and, by mingled corruption and intimidation, holding in their hands the reins of government. A considerable part of Moldavia, all that lay on the left bank of the Pruth, had been ceded to Russia in 1812. There are, also, more than two millions of Roumans living under the sceptre of Austria, in Transylvania; so that they present the melancholy spectacle of a people divided between three masters, and retained in barbarism by a very corrupt form of Christianity, and by ages of misgovernment. All the refinements of modern civilization exist among the nobles and wealthier class; while the priests are extremely ignorant and immoral, the people cowardly, indolent, and, in every sense, degraded. Yet trade is increasing; Galacz has been called the Alexandria of the Danube; a feeling of nationality is beginning to develop itself, and to spread across the political and conventional boundaries that separate the members of the same race; Transylvanian and Wallachian peasants learn to chant the same old national ballads, and new patriotic songs. The news of the French Revolution of 1848 fell upon the Turkish Roumans, upon the inhabitants of Bucharest and Jassy in particular, like a spark upon a train of gunpowder, showing that a desire of social progress and a dislike to Russia had been growing upon them. They did not immediately attempt to depose their respective Hospodars, but insisted upon a total change in the management of affairs, and proclaimed the enfranchisement of serfs, that first necessary step towards a more advanced civilization. This was in the course of that eventful year. Russia lost no time in occupying the Principalities with an overwhelming force. Stout old Riza Pacha would have insisted upon their being evacuated, and, if needs be, fought it out: but the Porte felt itself unsustained by the other powers of Europe. Even England, its most natural ally under the circumstances, was in a fit of absence or shortsighted indifference; so Riza Pacha was dismissed from the ministry, the liberal movement in the Principalities crushed, and the parish priests ordered to pray for the Emperor Nicholas. The first occupation ceased after a few months; but, by the convention of Balta-Liman, the sword was kept suspended over those provinces, if they should prove refractory. Thus Russia availed herself of the distracted state of Europe in the years 1848 and 1849, to crush a suffering people, and retard their political and social progress; but she reigns by force, not sympathy; and her rough courtship can hardly win the affections of the Roumans. The present occupation bears a character of insult to the Porte, rather than of hostility to the inhabitants of the provinces themselves; and the first act of the Divan of Moldavia, upon its assembling at Jassy on the 27th of June, was to vote an address of devotion to the Czar. It is to be hoped this is a mere compliment. We do not profess to fathom the Emperor Nicholas's intentions: he may evacuate the provinces more readily and earlier than we dare to expect; but, in any case, this crossing and recrossing of the Pruth is a bad habit and a temptation: neither the Russians nor the Roumans should be allowed to accustom themselves to it. We cannot forget that the change of protection into appropriation is a long-established rule of Muscovite policy. The Crimea was declared independent of the Porte in 1774, and Catherine II. took possession of it in 1783. Between the Balkan and the Danube are spread the fertile plains of Bulgaria. It is said the original stock of the Bulgarians came from the banks of the Volga, and it was supposed they were most nearly related to the Finnish race and to the Magyars; but it is to be inferred from their language that they are of Sclavonic origin, their dialect remaining, however, very distinct from the Illyro-Servian dialects spoken on their west. They were once the terror of the degenerate Greek empire, but were subdued by the Turks in 1396, and are now distinguished by a character of mildness, if not servility. They may be roughly computed at four millions, of whom about 300,000 have become Mussulmen. The rest are Greek Christians, very low, indeed, in the scale of civilization, sunk in ignorance and filth. The higher clergy, imprudently chosen by the Turks in the monasteries of Mount Athos and its dependencies, are the complaisant servants of the Russian court; yet the laity refused to take arms for Russia in the war of 1828, feeling instinctively that it would be but a change of masters. The Bulgarians are accused, by their neighbors, of having lost even the desire of liberty, during their long servitude; yet there was a stir among the Heidukes at the beginning of the Greek insurrection; and Marc Botzaris, the hero of Missolonghi, was one of them. Again in 1841, an outrage offered to a young woman produced an insurrection in the Balkan, which was not quelled without trouble and bloodshed. The influence of Greece is now very strongly felt in this province; and its importance increases with the increase of navigation in the Danube and Black Sea, Travelling westward along the northern frontier of the empire, we come to Servia. This is a natural fortress,-one large valley surrounded by the highest mountains in European Turkey. Its 900,000 inhabitants belong to the Greek Church, except about 12,000 Mussulmen. They speak one of the most harmonious of the Sclavonic dialects, are a spirited and chivalrous people, remarkable for their strong domestic affections and their love of liberty, more moral than any of their co-religionists, more active than any except the Greeks. Servia had independent princes for many ages; it then got involved in the long and bloody strife between Turkey and Hungary. The fatal battle lost in the plain of Corsovo, in 1389, is the great disaster in the annals of this people, and is as present to their remembrances as if it took place but yesterday; as is also the death of their good Prince Cazasus, and that of the victor Amurath too, killed upon the field of battle by a wounded and dying Servian. This has been the ever-recurring theme of popular song and lament, down to a very recent tragedy by Milutinowicz. After repeatedly changing masters, the Servians remained subjects of the Porte in 1739. Early in the present century, goaded by the exactions of the Janissaries, they took up arms, defended themselves with great valor under the famous Czerni George, and coöperated with the Russians in the campaigns of 18091812. The treaty of Bucharest secured them an amnesty. The last war which broke out between Russia and Turkey was the signal for a more successful struggle; and in 1830 their partial independence was recognized by the Porte. The Servians have neither nobles nor serfs; they are all free, and are generally owners of the fields they cultivate. This is the only country in which circumstances have permitted the establishment of patriarchial democracy, which liberal Sclavonians declare to be the ideal towards which tend the aspirations of their race, and the only form of democracy suited to propagate itself among them. All families are equal; but the head of the family only enjoys electoral rights. From the national representatives, chosen by this peculiar kind of suffrage, the Prince selects a ministry and a sort of privy council, in which all laws submitted to the Assembly are first discussed, the Assembly itself having the right of accepting or rejecting them, but not that of taking the initiative, or introducing laws without the approbation of the council. The Prince himself is elected for life. The Sclavonic mind is given to heroworship; it has great reverence for, and confidence in, superior energy and capacities; and writers of that race who wish for the development of native free institutions, rather than the importation of foreign ones, are accustomed to represent this system as happily combining the equality of all with practical government by the great and good, the selfrespect of the freeman with the Sclavonian's mystic reverence for his natural superiors. The Porte has only reserved to itself the citadel of Belgrade, (the garrison of which it may, if necessary, increase to 9,000 men,) and a tribute to be levied by native officers. The Servians are connected with Austria by old historical associations, and by the fact that a considerable Servian population lives under the Austrian sceptre, in Croatia, Sclavonia, and Dalmatia. They should, apparently, be still more connected with Russia by the ties of a common religion, a common origin, a kindred language, and the services they have received from that colossal power; but there exists a counterbalancing principle of antagonism, in the democratic tendencies of a hardy and energetic people. Even the clergy are not devoted to Russia as they are elsewhere, perhaps because they are recruited exclusively in their own province, and do not come from monasteries where the Russian influence predominates. The high dignitaries of the Church receive, indeed, rich presents from the Czar, but maintain a footing of reserve. The tyranny of Russia over Poland has produced upon the minds of the Servians a feeling that the protection of their autocrat cousin is more to be dreaded than the superannuated despotism of the Porte. They even deposed their Prince Milosch in 1842, because he was too much in the Russian interest, and put his son Michael in his place. This revolution was effected with the approbation of Riza Pacha, then Vizier. Russia would gladly have interfered; but the other great powers of Europe had then the leisure and the will to attend to her schemes of aggrandizement, and she did not dare to do so. It should be added, that the Servians have established schools, printing-presses, hospitals, post-offices, and a penitentiary; and that the roads are as safe as in the most civilized countries. Belgrade boasts of newspapers and an academy. Indeed, no part of the wide spread Sclavonic family has entered with more enthusiasm than the Servians into the idea of creating a new national literary unity, and, at the same time, treasuring up all fragments of old national ballads and traditions. Gaj has done much to popularize this idea among the Austrian Illyrians; and he has been ably seconded by the Slovack poet Kollar, by Palacki, the historian of Bohemia, and by Schafarick, the ethnographer and archæologist. The accounts of the bearing of the Servians in the present crisis are somewhat contradictory. It is said that the Prince of Servia offers the Sultan 15,000 men to garrison Belgrade, and 30,000 to defend the frontier; but that the Sultan's insisting upon the landsturm's being called out has created disaffection. Bosnia, with its dependencies, forms the north-west corner of the Turkish empire, and its principal rampart against Austria. It is a wild and mountainous country. The inhabitants, who always carry arms, and are proverbially ferocious, make incessant incursions upon the Austrian territories. thirds of them have embraced Islamism; but Twothey remain monogamists, keep up sundry traditional Christian usages, are jealous of the Turks, and continue to speak their native Sclavonic dialect. The power of the Pacha, who lives at Bosna-Serai, was very limited until of late, the Bosnians having been practically governed by thirty-six hereditary and native chiefs. This feudal system has been crushed, but not extinguished, by Omer Pacha; but the cruelly-oppressed minority of the people who remained Christians have not been gainers by the change. Last year the depredations of Bosnian Mussulmen upon Austrian subjects, and their outrages upon their own Christian countrymen, were so intolerable as to provoke the mission of Count Leiningen, and the extraordinary powers of [May, protection and intervention which the Porte has been obliged to concede. Bosnia Proper contains 800,000 inhabitants, Herzegovina 301,000, Turkish Croatia about 400,000. The historical associations of those provinces are, in a great measure, Austrian. After many vicissitudes, they were ceded to Turkey in 1739. Even in 1789 and 1790 they were partially reconquered, but given up again. to his native soil, which he can never be inThe Bosnian is remarkable for his attachment duced to leave; so that the retreat of the Turkish power would not here, at least, be followed by emigration, and the Moslem population, remaining isolated and dispirited, missions. would offer a favorable field for Protestant and the Adriatic, in the almost inaccessible Immediately to the south, beween Bosnia fastnesses of Montenegro, a small Sclavonic people have maintained their own independence, and kept open an asylum for insurgents against Turkey from time immemorial. Each village chooses its own chief; but the whole form a kind of republic, governed by a Vlaformerly used to look to Venice as their nadika, or Prince-Bishop. The Montenegrians was afterwards transferred to Russia. The tural ally and protectress: their veneration Vladika used to be chosen among the monks of the Convent of Cetigna; but this dignity. has become hereditary in the family of Peter I., who had in his day braved Napoleon, and tablished many useful reforms, and made died at a great age in 1840. Peter II. eshimself comparatively independent of Russia, though the reigning Prince Daniel did not the less go to St. Petersburg to receive investiture from the Russian Holy Synod. They number a little more than 100,000 Servian; and their late successful defence souls; their dialect is closely related to the against an army of 40,000 regular soldiers shows they have not degenerated from the savage valor of their ancestors. as they are called by the Turks,-SchypeAlbania is peopled by 1,600,000 Arnauts, tars, as they call themselves; descendants of the old Illyrians, mixed with Greeks and various races. They are a fierce, energetic people, and, when they emigrate, industrious. Their levies are the best soldiers in the Turkish army. Remaining Christians until the death of their hero, Scanderbeg, in 1467, a considerable number of them embraced Mohammedanism, and have acquired a sad repution for pride, cruelty, and perfidy. Christian Arnauts are generally of the Greek The Church; but in Upper Albania, the district |