formed, and in which the neuter (in the accusative singular) supplies its place-as facilis, facile; recens, recens (recently); multus, multum; primus, primum, and all the ordinal numerals. By means of the suffix itus, adverbs are formed from some substantives to denote origin from the thing implied by the substantive—as coelum, coelitus, from heaven; fundus, funditus; from the foundation, completely. Many adverbs are formed from the supine of verbs by means of the suffix im, and they generally denote manner-as caesim, by way of cutting down. In a similar manner adverbs are formed from nouns by the termination atim-as grex gregatim; gradus, gradatim. Some adverbs in o are formed from prepositions to denote motion towards a place—as citro, ultro, retro (from the inseparable particle re). These are formed on the same principle as those derived from pronouns such as eo, quo. There is a considerable number of words which are used as adverbs, but which are in reality the ablative or accusative of nouns used in the sense of adverbs-as noctu, by night; vesperi, in the evening; mane, in the morning. A large number of adverbs are formed by the composition of two or more words belonging to different parts of speech-as quamdiu, hodie (hoc die), nudius tertius (nunc dies tertius), imprimis (in primis), ilicet (ire licet), illico (in loco), cominus (cum and manus), eminus (e and manus). Respecting numeral adverbs, see No. 93. Formation of Compound Words. 238. Compound words are those which consist of two or more words, each of which by itself conveys a distinct idea; but a compound word, nevertheless, expresses only one idea, made up of those contained in the separate words of which it consists. Thus from de and scribo we make the compound describo; and from pater and familia we make paterfamilias. There are some compound words which, although they express only one idea, are yet treated as two distinct words (for example, in declension), and even admit of other words being inserted between them—as respublica, resquepublica; jus jurandum, jusve jurandum ; senatusconsultum, unusquisque, alteruter, and some others. These may be termed spurious compounds. But there are some genuine compounds, especially verbs compounded with a preposition, which in poetry are sometimes separated from each other by the insertion of a particle-as for et illigatus, we find inque ligatus; for insalutatusque, we find inque salutatus. The same is occasionally the case with the compound adverbs hactenus, eatenus, quadamtenus; as in Horace -quadam prodire tenus. Adjectives compounded with per are sometimes separated even by prose writers-as per mihi mirum visum est for permirum mihi visum est. The same is likewise the case with quicunque, qualiscunque, and quilibet. 239. The class of words to which a compound belongs is determined by the last of the words of which it consists—that is, if the last be a substantive, the whole compound is a substantive; if the last be a verb, the whole is a verb; and if the last be an adjective, the whole is an adjective. 240. The first part of a compound word is either a noun (substantive, adjective, or numeral), an adverb, or a preposition, and in a very few cases a verb. There is besides a number of inseparable particles which have a distinct meaning, but do not occur by themselves, being found only prefixed to other words-namely, amb (about, around); rě, or red (back, again); sē, or sed (aside); dis (in different directions, the English dis in distribute); and the negatives in (the English in or un, as in infallible, unjust) and ve. 241. When the first word of a compound is a noun, the second is usually appended to the stem of the first; should the noun belong to the first, second, or fourth declensions, the vowels a, o, and u are omitted; and if the second begins with a consonant, is usually inserted between the two as a connecting vowel-as magnanimus (from magnus and animus), corniger (from cornu and gero). 242. When the first word of a compound is a preposition or the negative in, the vowel of the second word (a, ě, or ae) is very often changed-as amicus, inimicus; arma, inermis; barba, imberbis. But this is not always the case; for maneo makes permaneo; traho, contraho; &c. It sometimes happens that a compound word belongs to a class of words different from the last part or element, and in this case the last receives a suitable termination to mark the class to which the whole belongs-as the adjective maledicus, from male and dico; opifex, from opus and facio. Sometimes, however, the addition of such a termination is unnecessary—as in crassipes, from crassus and pes; discolor, from dis and color. Sometimes the last word in a compound assumes a derivative suffix, without which it cannot form a compound-as exardesco, from ex and ardeo; latifundium, from latus and fundus; Cisalpinus, from Cis and Alpes. SYNTAX. 243. Syntax is that part of grammar which teaches how to combine words so as to form sentences. 244. All the rules of syntax may be arranged under two heads-1. The rules of concord or agreement; 2. The rules of government or dependence. Rules of Concord between Substantives and Words which qualify them-Apposition. 245. Adjectives, pronouns, and declinable numerals, qualifying a substantive or a substantive pronoun in the same clause, must agree with it in gender, number, and case-as pater bonus, a good father. mater cara, a dear mother. duae arbores, two trees. antiquum templum, an ancient temple. 246. When one adjective (participle or pronoun) belongs to two or more substantives, it agrees either with the one nearest to it only, or it is repeated before each substantive-as Omnes agri et maria, or omnes agri et omnia maria. If the substantives signify persons of different genders, the qualifying word must be in the masculine plural; but if any of them signify things without life, the qualifying word must be in the neuter plural. When an adjective, a pronoun, or a numeral occurs in a different clause from that in which the substantive or substantive pronoun stands, it can agree with the substantive or substantive pronoun only in gender and number, the case being dependent on the nature of the clause in which it occurs-as Amicus adest, sed eum non video, The friend is here, but I do not see him. 247. Relative pronouns, which generally occur in a different clause from that containing the substantive to which they refer (their antecedent), agree with it only in gender and number; but when a relative is joined to its substantive, it agrees with it in case also-as homo quem laudas mortuus est, quo die veneram, the man whom you praise is dead. on which day I had come; that is, on the day on which I had come. When a relative pronoun refers to more than one substantive it is usually put in the plural. If the substantives denote living beings of different genders, any of which are masculine, the relative takes the gender of the masculine-as matres et parvuli liberi, quorum utrorumque aetas misericordiam requirit; mothers and little children, the age of both of whom demands our sympathy. If there be no masculine, but only feminines and neuters, the relative takes the feminine gender. When substantives are names of inanimate objects, the relative is usually in the neuter plural-as otium atque divitiae, quae prima mortales putant; ease and riches, which mortals regard as the principal things. Sometimes, however, the relative agrees in number and gender only with the last of several substantives-that is, with the one nearest to it—as eae fruges atque fructus, quos terra gignit, where the quos agrees only with fructus. Sometimes several names of inanimate things are of the same gender, but the relative, instead of taking their gender in the plural, appears in the neuter plural-as inconstantia et temeritas, quae digna certe non sunt deo. When a relative refers to a common noun joined to a proper name, it may agree either with the former or with the latter-as flumen Rhenus, qui fluit, and flumen Rhenus, quod fluit. When a relative refers to a whole clause, and not to a single word, the neuter singular is used, before which the pronoun id is frequently |