3. The following five prepositions govern sometimes the accusative, and sometimes the ablative: the former, when they denote motion towards; and the latter, when they denote rest, or being in a place :

subter, under, beneath; generally with the accusative in either sense, rarely with the ablative. without the knowledge of, is construed indifferently with the ablat. or accus.

clam,

211. Prepositions are frequently compounded with other words, and if the latter begin with a consonant, the preposition in many cases undergoes a change for the sake of euphony-as attero (for adtero), aufero (for abfero), affero (for adfero).

There are certain prepositions which are never used by themselves, and are found only in composition with other words, whence they are called inseparable particles, or inseparable prepositions. They are amb, around; dis, asunder; rě, or red, again or back; and sẽ, or sed, aside or without.

Conjunctions.

212. Conjunctions are indeclinable words, which shew the connection existing between words, sentences, and clauses.

213. In form, conjunctions are either simple or compound words-as ět, ac, ăt, sed, věl, aut, nam; atque, quamvis, attăměn, enimvērā, quamquam.

214. In regard to their meaning, all conjunctions may be arranged in ten classes:

1. Copulative conjunctions, whereby clauses are put in the relation of equality to one another, or are merely placed in juxtaposition, as— ět, que, ac and atque (and); etiam (even, also); nèque, or něc (and not or nor); něc non, or něquè non (equivalent to et, and); quoque (also); neque-neque, or nec-nec (neither-nor); věl-věl, sīvě-sīvě, autaut (either-or); mědo-modo, or nunc-nunc (sometimes-sometimes); quum-tum (both-and).

2. Comparative conjunctions: ét, úti, sicut, vělŭt, proŭt, praeŭt, and ceu (as, or like); quam, 'than;' tamquam, quasi, ut si, ac si, 'as if.' Also ac and atque in the sense of 'as' and 'than.'

3. Conjunctions denoting concession, all of which are rendered in English by although,' though,' and 'even if'—as etsī, ĕtiamsī, tămetsī, or tămenetsi, quamquam, quamvis, quantumvīs, quamlibět, licět, and sometimes quum; quidem or equidem signifies ‘indeed.' 4. Conditional conjunctions: si (if); sin (if however); quodsī (if therefore); nisi, or ni (if not); dummodò dum, modo (if only, if but); dummodo ne, modo ně, or dumně (if but not).

5. Inferential conjunctions, meaning 'therefore '-as ergō, igitur, ităque, eō, ideō, idcirco, proinde, propterea; to which may be added quapropter, quārē, quamobrem, quōcircā (wherefore); and unde (whence, or for which reason).

6. Conjunctions denoting reason or cause: nam, namque, ènim, ětěním (for); quia, quod, quoniam (because); and quippe, quum, quandõ, quandoquidem, and siquidem (since, or as).

7. Conjunctions denoting a purpose or intention: ut, or uti (in order that); quō (in order that thereby); nē, or ut nē (in order that not); ně vě, or neu (and in order that not); quïn (that not); quominus (in order that not).

8. Adversative conjunctions, all of which answer more or less to the English 'but,' or 'however:' sěd, autem, vērum, vērō, ăt, ăt ěním, atqué, tăměn, attăměn, sedtăměn, vērumtăměn, at vērō, ěnimvērō, vērum ĕnimvērō, cētĕrum.

9. Conjunctions denoting time: quum, út, ŭbì, quandō (when); quum primum, ut prīmum, ŭbĭ prīmum, simŭlāc, simulatque, or simul (as soon as); postquam (after); antèquam, priusquam (before); dum, usque dum, dōněc, quoad (until, as long as).

10. Interrogative conjunctions: num, utrum, ăn; the suffix ně (nonně, annon), necně (or not); and the prefixes ec and en.

These interrogative particles are generally untranslatable into English, since with us the interrogative nature of a clause is indicated by the position of the words.

Interjections.

215. Interjections are indeclinable words, being sounds uttered to express some strong emotion. Such sounds expressing the emotions of joy, grief, wonder, surprise, &c., are pretty nearly the same in all languages. The following are actually found in ancient authors:

Interjections do not exercise any influence on the construction of a sentence. In Latin, as well as in English, it often happens that words which belong to other parts of speech are used as interjections. Those most commonly occurring areNouns-pax peace! be still!-infandum! shame!

miserum! wretched!-mactě! (voc. sing.),

macti! (voc. plur.), or mactě virtute! admirable! bravo!

Verbs-age! agite! come! or quick!-cědo! give up!— sodes! my good friend!

Advs.-belle! excellent! bravo!-bene! very well!cito! quick!

All kinds of invocations of the gods may be regarded as interjections-as per deos! 'by the gods !'-per deos immortales! by the immortal gods !'-mehercule, mehercle, hercle! 'by Hercules!' Such exclamations are sometimes accompanied by real interjections-as proh or pro Jupiter !-pro dii immortales !

Etymology in General.

216. All the actual words of a language are simple, derivative, or compound. The basis of both simple and derivative words is called their root. A root by itself does not convey any distinct meaning, but becomes significant by the addition of certain suffixes. Thus the root duc, by the addition of s, becomes the substantive ducs=dux (leader), and by the addition of o it becomes the verb duco (I lead). Words thus formed from a root, by the simple addition of a suffix to give it a definite meaning, are called simple words.

217. Derivative words may, like simple ones, be traced at once to their root, but it is customary to trace them only to the simple words from which they are formed. A derivative word contains a modification of the idea conveyed by the simple word. As ama, verb amo, I love; from amo, is formed amabilis, amiable; amabilitas, amiability; and amator, lover.

218. Derivative words are formed from simple ones by derivative suffixes, also called simply suffixes, as in the above example, bilis, bilitas, and tor. The same derivative suffix generally modifies in the same way all words

to which it is added.

1. Derivative suffixes are generally appended to the stem of a word such as it appears when divested of those simple suffixes by which it becomes a distinct word-as from miles (stem milit) are derived militaris, militia; frango (stem frag), fragilis, fragor; semen (stem semin), seminarium.

In substantives of the first, second, and fourth declensions, the final vowels of the stem a, o, and u are usually thrown out-as filia, filiola; luna, lunula; hortus, hortulus.

2. Verbs of the first and second conjugations generally drop ā and ē before those derivative suffixes which begin with a vowel-as amo (stem ama), amor; palleo (stem palle), pallor.

3. The e in verbs of the second conjugation is dropped also before consonants, except in those verbs which make their perfect in vi. 4. When the stem ends in a consonant, and the derivative suffix begins with one, a connecting vowel (or u) is often inserted between them, or one of the consonants is thrown out-as in fulmen (from fulgeo, stem fulg). The latter is the case especially when the stem ends in v-as mōtus, mobilis (from moveo, stem mov); adjutor and adjumentum (from juro).

5. When the stem of a verb ends in a, e, i, or u, these vowels are generally lengthened before the derivative suffix-as velāmen complementum, molimen, volūmen.

6. In forming nouns from verbs by suffixes beginning with t, the stem undergoes the same change as in the formation of the supine ending in tum; whence it may be said that they are formed from the supine-as amator (from amo, amatum), lector (from lego, lectum).