thought in their relation to the speaker, or to denote an unknown object of inquiry. Thus:

Every man hath within himself a witness and a judge of all the good or ill that he does.-Seneca.

Keep the divine portion of thyself pure. Look within. Within is the fountain of good; that is the life; that is the man.—Aurelius. How sure it is that if we say a true word, instantly we feel it is God's, not ours, and pass it on.-Elizabeth B. Browning.

Who is the great man? He who is strongest in the exercise of patience; he who patiently endures injury.-Buddha Sakya. Pronouns are:

1. Personal-'I,' 'thou,' 'he,' 'she,' and 'it.' So called because they refer, in general, to the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of.

2. Demonstrative-this,' 'that,' 'same,' such.' So called because they speak definitely of the thing named.

3. Relative-who,' 'which,' 'what,' that,' and 'as.' So called because they usually relate, or carry us back, to some noun or pronoun going before, and already given, called the antecedent.

4. Interrogative-who?' 'which?' 'what?' So called because they are used in asking questions.

5. Indefinite 'some,' 'any,' 'many,' 'few,' 'all,' 'both,' 'none,' 'each,' either,' 'neither,' 'other,' 'another,' 'aught,' 'naught'; and the compounds of 'some,' 'any,' 'every,' and 'no' with 'one,' 'thing,' and 'body'; as, 'somebody,' ' anything,' etc., so called because, while they stand for names, they do not point out or particularize.

Note I.—The personal pronouns are compounded with 'self,' (1) to form Reflexives; as, 'He hurt himself'; (2) to express emphasis; as, 'He himself did it.'

Note II. The relatives are compounded with 'so,' 'ever,' and

'soever,' giving an indefinite meaning, and having their antecedents often left unexpressed. "Whoso is wise' means any person

who is wise.

Note III.-It is often used indeterminately; as,

Whether the charmer sinner it or saint it.-Pope.

Note IV. Which,' as relative, applies only to things, a comparatively modern restriction; but, as interrogative, to either persons or things; as, 'Which of you convinceth me of sin?' It is not the neuter of 'who,' as is often said. It really preserves for us the adjective lic (like) and the pronoun hwa (who). Early English, hwilic, hwilc, whulc, whulch, wuch.

Note V.The Noun, the Pronoun, and the Verb are the three principal parts of speech. They alone can form sentences without the help of other words.

Note VI. The student must not fall into the error of thinking that the foregoing words, or others, belong invariably to the same class. Many of them, as we shall presently see, are freely otherwise used, and then must be otherwise classified.

While the noun, the pronoun, and the verb are the essentials, they seldom make the whole of a sentence. We find that many words accompany them, and lean on them as on supports; as, 'the,' 'golden,' and 'brightly,' in, 'The golden sun shines brightly.' To extend the illustration, if we say simply apple, we mean apples in general, and the word represents all apples. If, however, we say three, some, or many apples, the word is restricted in respect of the number denoted - it includes fewer objects than before. If we say the, this, or that apple, the word is restricted not only to one object but to a particular one. If we say a large apple, the word is restricted in respect of the size, small apples being excluded. If we say a large red apple, the word is further restricted in respect of color, apples of any other color or size being excluded. Words that thus throw their force upon a

noun, or its equivalent, are called Adjectives.' The chief divisions are:

1. Quantity adjectives—a,' 'some,' 'many,' 'ten,' etc. 2. Quality adjectives-bright,' 'wise,' 'good,' etc. 3. Demonstrative adjectives, or those that particularize,—the,' 'this,' 'former,' 'yonder,' etc.

Here again we are reminded that a given word has not always the same use; for some of the above were previously mentioned as pronouns. Before we can refer a word to its class, we must ever ask ourselves what duty it

is doing.

Note I.-Proper adjectives — those derived from proper names are principally adjectives of quality, as the 'Socratic Method.' Note II.-The,' 'a,' 'an,' are sometimes called Articles,-'the,' Definite; and 'a' or 'an,' the Indefinite.

Note III. The' is a weakened form of the Anglo-Saxon paet, as 'an' and 'a' are descended from the numeral one.' Formerly, 'an' was used before consonantal as well as before vowel sounds.

Note IV.- Greek has no indefinite article. Latin has neither the indefinite nor the definite. Filius regis may mean equally 'the son of the king,'' a son of a king,' 'a son of the king,' or 'the son of a king.'

In, 'He steps,' the verb may be variously applied; but if it be said, 'He steps proudly,' these possible applications are limited to one- - that is, the meaning is restricted or modified. Similarly in, 'The lark soars aloft (where?), and always (when?) sings sweetly (how?).' Words thus used to mark the when, where, or how of verbs, are called Adverbs. We observe, also, that most adverbs may modify adjectives and other adverbs; as, 'very good' (how good?), good to-day' (when?), 'good here' (where?)

1 From the Latin ad, to, and jacere, to throw,= added to.

2 From the Latin ad, to, and verbum, word,- added to a verb.

Hence, an adverb is a word used to mark the when, where, how, or why of verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. The chief varieties are:

1. Local.. (where?)..' below,' 'here,' 'yonder,' ‘thith

er,' etc.

2. Temporal..(when ?)..' never,' 'next,' 'twice,' 'already,' etc.

3. Causal..(why ?)..' therefore,'

'whence,' 'why,'

'wherefore,' etc.

4. Modal.. (how ?).. 'badly,' 'wisely,' 'well,' etc.;

'surely,' 'indeed,' 'yes,' 'not,'

'certainly,' etc. The former, in general, throw their force upon words, the latter, more especially upon statements, showing how the thought is conceived.

5. Intensive..(how much?).. 'little,' 'very,' 'quite,'

'exceedingly,' etc.

The same adverb, it should be understood, may require different classification in different connections. Thus:

He never yet no vilanie ne sayde.- Chaucer.

The Lord is king, be the people never so impatient.-David.

There are other words which express neither things (like nouns), nor activities (like verbs), nor qualities or limitations (like adjectives and adverbs), but only their relations. Such are called Prepositions.' Hence a Preposition is a word used to connect a noun (or pronoun):

1. With another noun (or pronoun); as, the day before yesterday.'

2. With an adjective; as, 'fond of books.'

1 Latin præ, before, and ponere, to place, indicating the usual position.

3. With a verb; as, 'Speak to me.'

4. With an adverb; as 'Never till to-day.'

Note I. Prepositions connect words.

Note II. The noun (or pronoun) following the preposition is called the object. A preposition and its object are called an adjunct, or prepositional phrase.

Note III.-Adjuncts, as we shall have further occasion to remark, are modifiers, being equivalent to adjectives or to adverbs, according to the part of speech on which they throw their force. Thus, 'before yesterday,' since it restricts the noun 'day,' is an adjective; 'of books,' since it restricts the adjective 'fond,' is an adverb; 'to me,' since it restricts the verb 'speak'- that is, limits its possible meanings is an adverb; 'till to-day' is an adverb restricting the adverb 'never.'

There are still other words which receive their grammatical character neither from their form nor from their position, but from their connecting office. Such are the Conjunctions,' whose principal and proper use is to join together different thoughts, though some of the most common (especially 'and') are also used to unite ideas. A conjunction, therefore, is a word used primarily to connect sentences together; or, secondarily, words employed in the same way in the sentence. If the student is doubtful whether a given word is a preposition or conjunction, let him consider whether it connects or can connect two statements. However, it should not be forgotten that the same word may be one and the other in different uses. Thus, He came before me (preposition); he came before I returned (conjunction). Also, The battle was against him, before and behind (adverb).

There is yet another class of words which, while they can neither connect sentences nor enter into the construc

1 Latin con, with, and jungere, to join, joined together,