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VII.

1821.

accordingly, throughout, by impassioned conception and CHAP. ephemeral existence: violent change, disregard of former usage, inattention to national character, oblivion of the general national interests. Designed and carried into execution by an active and energetic, but limited and special class of the people, it exhibited, in all the countries where it was established, the well-known features of class legislation; and by the establishment of class representation of the very worst kind-universal suffrage-it insured at no distant period its own downfall. It will appear in the sequel how sudden and violent the reaction was, how quickly the newly-raised fabric yielded to the aroused indignation of mankind, and how galling, and heavy, and lasting were the chains of servitude which, from the failure of this ill-judged attempt at liberation, were imposed upon the people.

123.

caused their

throw.

In truth, all revolutions which, like that of Spain, and its imitations in Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and Piedmont, What are brought about by a single and limited class of society, speedy overinvolve in themselves the principles of their own speedy destruction. They may be propped up for a time by the aid of foreign powers politically interested in the establishment of such institutions; but even with such external aid they cannot long endure; without it, they at once fall to the ground. The reason is, that the constitution which they establish, being founded on the principle of opposition to all that has preceded it, the growth of centuries, is soon found to be wholly unsuited to the national disposition and necessities; and having been brought about by the efforts of a single class, it is calculated only for its interests, and proves destructive to those of all the other classes. There was no need of the bayonets of Austria or France to overturn the revolutions of the two peninsulas. Left to themselves, they would speedily have perished from their experienced unsuitableness to the circumstances of the countries. The only revolutions which ever have or ever can terminate

VII. 1821.

CHAP. in durable institutions, are those which, brought about, like that of Great Britain in 1688, by an unbearable tyranny which has for a time united all classes for its overthrow, are limited to the change requisite to guard against the recurrence of that tyranny, avoid the fatal evil of class legislation, the invariable result of class revolution, and make no further change in the institutions or government of the state, the growth of centuries, and the creation of the national wants, than is necessary to secure their unimpaired continuance.

124.

What

should the military do in such circumstances?

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What, it is often asked, are the military to do when called on by the government to act against insurgents demanding a change in the national institutions? Are they to imbrue their hands in the blood of their fellowcitizens, guilty of no other offence but that of striving to obtain the first of human blessings, that of civil liberty? The answer is, Certainly," if they would secure its acquisition for themselves and their children. Freedom has been often won by the gradual pressure of pacific classes on the government; it never yet was secured by the violent insurrection of armed men. To be durable, it must be gradually established: its builders must be the pacific citizens, not the armed soldiers : it never yet was won by the sudden revolt of the military. The only effect of the success of such an insurrection is an increase in the strength and means of oppression in the ruling power-the substitution of the vigour of military for the feebleness of monarchical, or the infatuation of priestly government. Riego and Pepe were the real murderers of freedom in the Spanish and Italian peninsulas, for they overturned the national constitution to establish military rule, and blasted the cause of liberty by the excesses which came to be committed in its name.

CHAPTER VIII.

RUSSIA AND POLAND, FROM THE PEACE OF 1815 TO THE
ACCESSION OF NICHOLAS IN 1825.

VIII.

1815. 1.

and extent

America,

India in

GREAT as have been the changes, marvellous the events, CHAP. of recent times, in all countries, the most wonderful have occurred in different and distant parts of the world, where they exceed everything not only witnessed by contempo- Vast growth raries, but recorded by history of former periods. We are of Russia, too near them to measure their proportions with the eye; and British future times, which hear of them at a distance with the ear, recent or are witnesses, after the lapse of ages, of their effects, times. will more correctly estimate their relative magnitude and importance. The simultaneous growth of the Russian power in Europe and Asia, of the United States in America, and of the British empire in India and Australia, stand forth pre-eminent in this age of wonders. Great changes in human affairs-the overthrow of aged, the rise of youthful empires-the realisation of the dreams of the Crusaders-the dwindling away of the Mahommetan faith, the boundless extension of the Christian-the restoration of a European and civilised empire on the shores of the Euxine-vast transplantations of mankind to the East and the West-the rolling back of the tide of civilisation to the land of its birth-the peopling of a new world with the race of Japhet-are obviously connected with, or the direct consequence of, these events. The effects they have produced will always be regarded as a decisive turning

VOL. II.

H

VIII.

1815.

CHAP. point in the annals of mankind; not less memorable than the overthrow of the Roman Empire-not less prolific of consequences than the Reformation in Europe, and the discovery of America. Nor have the gifts of Providence been wanting to aid in the mighty movement, and carry it out in accordance with the welfare and happiness of mankind. If to the age of Columbus it gave the compass and the art of printing, to that succeeding Napoleon it gave steam navigation, railway communication, and the electric telegraph; and if the activity of the former period was stimulated by the grant to man of the silver mines of Potosi and Mexico, the enterprise of the latter was still more powerfully aroused by the discovery of the goldladen fields of California and Australia.

2.

of 1814 and 1815.

Vast and powerful as the Russian empire was when its Increase of children, in emulation of those of Numantium, applied Russia by the treaties the torch to the palaces of Moscow, or carried their victorious arms to the heights of Montmartre and the banks of the Seine, it had not then attained half the influence and importance which it has since acquired. The victory of Alexander doubled his power-the overthrow of Napoleon halved his enemies. Independent of the immense increase of influence and importance, which necessarily and immediately resulted from the destruction of the vast armament which Napoleon had marshalled for its destruction, and the proud pre-eminence conceded to it in the diplomatic negotiations of Vienna, the physical resources and territorial extent of Russia had been enormously augmented during, and by the results of, the struggle. It was hard to say whether it had prospered most from victory or defeat. The carnage of Eylau, the overthrow of Tilsit, led only to the incorporation of Finland with its vast dominions, the acquisition of a considerable territory from its ally Prussia, the consolidation of its power in the Caucasus and Georgia, and the incorporation of Wallachia and Moldavia, and extension of its southern frontier to the Danube.

And although,
And although, during the first

VIII.

1815.

agonies of the French invasion, these valuable provinces CHAP. were in part abandoned, and the Pruth was fixed on as the boundary in the mean time of the empire, yet it was at the time evident, what the event has since abundantly proved, that this unwonted retirement of the Russian eagle was for a time only; and that their march towards Constantinople, conquering and to conquer, was destined to be not permanently arrested.

3.

the grand

Warsaw.

But the great and lasting acquisition of Russia, from the results of the war, was that of the GRAND-DUCHY OF Important acquisition WARSAW. This important territory, which brings the of Russia in Russian outposts within a comparatively short distance duchy of of both Vienna and Berlin, and renders the influence of its diplomacy irresistible in eastern Europe, was virtually annexed to Russia by the treaty of Vienna in 1815; for although, by the strenuous efforts of Lord Castlereagh and M. Talleyrand, its immediate incorporation with the dominions of the Czar was prevented, yet this was done only by its establishment as a state nominally independent, but really part of his vast territories. The grandduchy of Warsaw was erected into a separate state, but the Emperor Alexander was at its head; his brother, the Grand-duke Constantine, was his viceroy, and Russian influence was predominant in its councils. A constitutional monarchy, and the form at least of representative institutions, were, by the strenuous efforts of France and England, established at Warsaw; but it was the form only. National habits and character proved stronger, as is ever the case, than diplomatic changes; freedom was found to be unavailing to a nation when it was conferred, not by domestic effort, but by foreign intervention; and the prosperity communicated to the Poles by the vigour of Russian rule, and the organisation of Russian power, proved only an addition to the strength of Russia, when, after an unsuccessful and ill-judged revolt, the grandduchy was formally incorporated with her dominions.

The grand-duchy of Warsaw, which the treaty of

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