in words taken from the French, to denote that the letter has in that case the sound of s; as, façade [pronounced fa-sad.] 11. Marks of Reference are the asterisk or star (*), the dagger (†), the double dagger, (†), the section (?), parallel lines (||), the paragraph (¶). 12. Leaders are dots used to carry the eye from words at the beginning of a line to something at the end with which they are connected; Thus, 13. Double Commas inverted are used to show that a word is to be supplied from the line above. (See example under No. 12, where supplies the place of the word " "page.") 14. The Title-page of a book is that which contains the title, and is usually the first page. 15. Running Titles, or Head-lines, placed at the top of the page to show the subject, are usually printed in capitals, or small capitals. 16. Captions, or Sub-heads, are headings placed over chapters or sections, but standing in the body of the page, not at the top. 17. Side-heads are titles run into, or made part of, the line. 18. A Frontispiece is a picture opposite to the title-page. 19. A Vignette is a small picture, not occupying a full page, but mixed up with other matter, either on the title-page, or in any other part of the book. 20. Italics are letters inclined to the right. They are so called because type of this kind was first used by Italian printers. NOTE 1. In manuscript, one line drawn under a word shows that it should be printed in italics; two lines, that it should be printed in SMALL CAPITALS; and three lines, that it should be printed in CAPITALS. Ordinary letters are called Roman, as opposed to Italic. NOTE 2. Some writers use Italics to mark emphatic words. This is a weak and foolish device, and cannot be too strongly condemned. NOTE 3. In the English Bible, words are printed in italic to show that they ar not in the original, but are supplied by the translators to complete the meaning. 21. The principal kinds of type are the following: English, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o. Pica, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r. Small Pica, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q. Long Primer, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s. Bourgeois, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, V. Brevier, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, X. Minion, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. Nonpareil, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. Agate, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. Pearl, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. Brilliant, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. 22. Leads are thin plates of type-metal, by which the lines may be spaced further apart. Matter thus spaced is said to be leaded. Matter not leaded is called solid. 23. Composing, as a part of the printing business, is putting matter in type, or setting up the type. 24. The amount of printed matter is counted by ems, that is, by the number of spaces of the length of the letter m. 25. A Folio is a leaf or sheet of paper with a single fold, that is, making two leaves or four pages. 26. A book is called a Folio when the sheets on which it is printed are so folded that each sheet makes but two leaves. It is called a Quarto, when each sheet makes four leaves; an Octavo, when each makes eight leaves; a Duodecimo, when each makes twelve leaves; a 16mo, 18mo, 24mo, 32mo, 48mo, 64mo, 96mo, &c., according as each sheet makes 16, 18, 24, 32, 48, 64, or 96 leaves. SECTION XII. Capitals. RULE 1. Title- Pages and Headings. Title - pages and the headings of chapters should be entirely in capitals. NOTE. The head-line of the page is usually in a kind of type called small capitals. The headings of sections smaller than a chapter are sometimes printed in small capitals, and sometimes by beginning only the principal words with a capital. RULE 2. The First Word in a Book, &c. — The first word of every book, tract, essay, &c., and of every chapter or section, also of every letter, note, or writing of any kind, should begin with a capital. RULE 3. The First Word in a Sentence.-The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital. RULE 4. Numbered Clauses.-Clauses, when separately numbered, should begin with a capital, though not separated from each other by a full-point; as, This writer asserts, 1. That Nature is unlimited in her operations; 2. That she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; 3. That knowledge will always be progressive, and, 4. That all future generations will continue to make discoveries. RULE 5. The first word after a period, except when used as an abbreviation, should begin with a capital. NOTE 1. The reason of this is that the period brings the sentence to a close. The first word following it, therefore, begins a new sentence, and should have the capital, according to Rule 3, already given. NOTE 2. For the same reason a capital should follow the mark of interrogation, when equivalent to a period, as it usually is. RULE 6. First Word of an Example. The first word of a sentence or clause which is given as an example should begin with a capital; as, Temperance promotes health." NOTE. If the example is not a sentence or a clause, but only a single word, or a series of words, as, temperance, fortitude, honesty, prudence, &c., no capital is needed. RULE 7. Quoting Titles. In quoting the title of a book, every noun, pronoun, adjective, and adverb should begin with a capital; as, "Sparks's Life of Washington." RULE 8. First Word of a Direct Question. The first word of a direct question should begin with a capital; as, (Direct question.) His words are, "Why do you not study the lesson?" RULE 9. First Word of a Direct Quotation. The first word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital; as, Plutarch says, "Lying is the vice of slaves." NOTE. If this quotation be changed to the indirect form, no capital will be needed at the point where the quotation begins; as, Plutarch says that lying is the vice of slaves. RULE 10. Capitals Used for Figures. - Numbers are sometimes represented by capital letters; as, I., II., III., IV., &c. NOTE. In referring to passages in books, it is very common to number the chapter, book, sections, &c., in this way, and to begin with a capital each name of the division mentioned; as, "Mill's Political Economy, Vol. I, Book III, Chap. IV, Sec. VI, p. 573." If the references are numerous, this method is found to be cumbersome and unsightly, and small letters are preferred; as, “Mill's Political Economy, vol. i, book iii, chap. iv, sect. vi, p. 573." RULE 11. The pronoun I, and the interjection O, should always be capital letters. RULE 12. Poetry. The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a capital. RULE 13. Names of God. — All names and titles of God should begin with a capital; as, Jehovah, Father, Creator, Almighty, &c. NOTE 1. When any name usually applied to the Supreme Being is used for a created being, it does not begin with a capital; as, "The Lord is a great God above all gods." "Lord of lords, King of kings." NOTE 2. Providence is sometimes used to mean God, that is, the One who provides for us; Heaven likewise is used to mean the One who reigns in heaven. In such cases the word should begin with a capital. But if only God's providential care, or his place of abode is meant, a capital is not needed. NOTE 3. The adjectives eternal, universal, heavenly, divine, &c., when applied to God, need not begin with a capital, unless something in the particular instance makes them emphatic. Custom, however, has made capitals necessary in the following instances: Almighty God, Infinite One, Supreme Being, First Cause. NOTE 4. When an attribute of God is expressed, not by an adjective, as in the instances above, but by a noun dependent upon another noun, as "Father of mercies" for "Merciful Father," the dependent noun in such combinations does not require a capital. NOTE 5. "Son of God," as applied to our Saviour, requires that both nouns should begin with a capital; "Son of man" requires no capital for the latter noun. NOTE 6. Great diversity prevails in regard to the pronouns, when referring to God. Some authors, in printing a hymn or a prayer, make the page fairly bristle with capitals, every pronoun that refers in any manner to God being decorated in that manner. The first stage of this fancy is that which prints in this manner Thou, Thine, Thee. In the second stage, He, His, Him are thus treated. The last and highest stage shows itself in the relative pronouns, Who, Whose, and Whom. In the standard editions of the English Bible, the pronouns, when referring to God, are never printed in this way, not even in forms of direct address to the Deity; as, "But thou, O Lord, be merciful unto me, "&c. RULE 14. Proper Names. All proper names should begin with capitals; as, Jupiter, Mahomet, Brahma, Pompey, Lake Erie, Monday, Good Friday, Rome, China, France. NOTE 1. The word devil, when used to designate Satan, should begin with a capital; in all other cases, with a small letter; as, "The Devil and his angels." "The devils also believe and tremble." NOTE 2. The same persons who capitalize the first letter of the pronouns when referring to God, capitalize the first letter of heaven and hell when referring to the abodes of the blessed and of the lost. But such is not the usage in the Bible, which is the most carefully printed book in the language. "If I ascend up into heaven, thou art there: if I make my bed in hell, behold, thou art there." NOTE 3. North, South, East, and West, when used to denote certain parts of the country or of the world, should begin with a capital; as, "This man evidently is a native of the West." But when they denote merely geographical direction, they should begin with a small letter; as, "Ohio lies west of the Alleghanies." NOTE 4. When a name is compounded of a proper name and of some other word which is not a proper name, connected by a hyphen, the part which is not a proper name begins with a capital, if it precedes the hyphen, but with a small letter, if it follows the hyphen; as, Pre-Adamite, New-England, Sunday - school. RULE 15. Words derived from Proper Names. - Words derived from proper names should begin with a capital; as, Mahometan, Brahmin, Christian, Roman; French, Spanish, Grecian; to Christianize, to Judaize, to Romanize, &c. NOTE 1. The names of religious sects, whether derived from proper names or otherwise, begin with a capital; as, Christians, Pagans, Jews, Gentiles, Lutherans, Calvinists, Protestants, Catholics, &c. The names of political parties likewise begin with capitals; as Democrats, Republicans, Radicals, Conservatives, &c. NOTE 2. Some words, derived originally from proper names, have by long and familiar usage lost all reference to their origin, and are printed like ordinary words, without capitals; as, simony, damask, jalap, godlike, philippic, to hector, to galvanize, to japan, &c. RULE 16. Titles of Honor and Office.-Titles of honor and office should begin with a capital; as, The President of the United States, His Honor the Mayor of Philadelphia, President Madison, Queen Victoria, Sir Robert Murchison, Your Royal Highness, &c. NOTE. When father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, &c., immediately precede a proper name, some writers begin with a capital; as, Aunt Margaret, Brother John &c. But the tendency at present among careful writers is to discontinue the use of capitals in such cases. In writing to a person of his father, mother, &c., it is customary with some, as a mark of respect, to use the capital; as, "I met your Father yesterday." In the family circle, Father and Mother often become proper nouns, when, of course, they take the capital. The term father, when used to denote one of the early Christian writers, is always printed with a capital; as, "Chrysostom and Augustine are among the most voluminous of the Fathers." RULE 17. Subjects first introduced. In works of a scientific character, when the subject of a particular section is defined, or is first introduced, it begins with a capital; as, "A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun." RULE 18. The Bible. A capital is always used for the terms ordinarily employed to designate the Bible, or any particular part or book of the Bible; as, The Holy Bible, the Sacred Writings, the Old |