by a semicolon, even though not subdivided by commas; as, "So sad and dark a story is scarcely to be found in any work of fiction; and we are little disposed to envy the moralist who can read it without being softened."

Examples for Practice.

1. Sparre was sulky and perverse because he was a citizen of a republic. Sparre the Dutch general was sulky and perverse because according to Lord Mahon he was a citizen of a republic.

2. Bellasys the English general embezzled the stores because we suppose he was the subject of a monarchy. Bellasys embezzled the stores because he was the subject of a monarchy.

3. The most ridiculous weaknesses seemed to meet in the wretched Solomon of Whitehall pedantry buffoonery garrulity low curiosity the most contemptible personal cowardice.

4. Men reasoned better for example in the time of Elizabeth than in the time of Egbert and they also wrote better poetry.

5. Milton was like Dante a statesman and a lover and like Dante he had been unfortunate in ambition and in love.

6. You may quit the field of business though not the field of danger and though you cannot be safe you may cease to be ridiculous.

7. This is an inconsistency which more than anything else raises his character in our estimation because it shows how many private tastes and feelings he sacrificed in order to do what he considered his duty to mankind.

RULE 2. Clauses and Expressions having a Common Dependence. When several clauses or grammatical expressions of similar construction follow each other in a series, all having a common dependence upon some other clause, they are separated from each other by a semicolon, and from the clause on which they all depend, by a comma.

Example: "Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries."

NOTE. If the clause on which the series depends comes at the end of the sentence, it is separated from the series, sometimes by a colon, and sometimes by a comma followed by a dash. Thus: That nature is unlimited in her operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive; and

that all future generations will continue to make discoveries: these are among the assertions of philosophers.

If we think of glory in the field; of wisdom in the cabinet; of the purest patriotism; of the highest integrity, public and private; of morals without a stain; of religious feeling without intolerance and without extravagance, the august figure of Washington presents itself as the personation of all these.

Examples for Practice.

1. Mr. Croker is perpetually stopping us in our progress through the most delightful narrative in the language to observe that really Dr. Johnson was very rude that he talked more for victory than for truth that his taste for port wine with capilliare in it was very odd that Boswell was impertinent and that it was foolish in Mrs. Thrale to marry the music-master.

2. To give an early preference to honor above gain when they stand in competition to despise every advantage which cannot be attained without dishonest acts to brook no meanness and to stoop to no dissimulations are the indications of a great mind.

RULE 3. Sentences Connected in Meaning, but without Grammatical Dependence. When several sentences follow each other, without any grammatical dependence, but connected in meaning, they are usually separated from each other by semicolons.

Example: "She presses her child to her heart; she drowns it in her tears; her fancy catches more than an angel's tongue can describe."

NOTE. In all the cases which come under this Rule, two features are essential. First, each of the several members forming the continued sentence should be complete in itself, so that it might grammatically stand alone, with a period following. Secondly, these several members should have some underlying thread of connection in the thought. Authors differ in regard to the punctuation, in these cases. Some insist on separating the members by a period. By such a course, however, we lose one important means of marking nice changes of thought. Others use the colon, instead of the semicolon, for these purposes. This was the case formerly much more than now. The best usage at present is, to employ a period, a colon, a semicolon, or a comma, according to the degree of complexity or simplicity of the several sentences, and the degree of closeness or looseness of connection in the thought. If the connection is close, and the successive members are short and simple, the comma is used; if the members are somewhat longer, and especially if any of them are at all complex, the semicolon is used; if, in addition to this, the connection in the thought is but faint, the colon is used; and when the connection almost disappears, the period is used. The connection in the thought does not disappear entirely until the close of the paragraph.

Examples for Practice.

1. Stones grow vegetables grow and live animals grow live and feel. 2. The summer is over and gone the winter is here with its frosts and snow the wind howls in the chimney at night the beast in the forest forsakes its lair the birds of the air seek the habitation of men.

3. The temples are profaned the soldier's oath resounds in the house of God the marble pavement is trampled by iron hoofs horses neigh beside the altar.

RULE 4. The Clause Additional. When a sentence complete in itself is followed by a clause which is added by way of inference, explanation, or enumeration, the additional clause, if formally introduced by some connecting word, is separated from the main body of the sentence by a semicolon; but, if merely appended without any such connecting word, by a colon.

1. Apply yourself to study; for it will redound to your honor.

2. Apply yourself to study: it will redound to your honor.

NOTE 1. Some of the connecting words most commonly used for this purpose are namely, for, but, yet, to wit, &c.

NOTE 2. The word as, when used to connect an example with a rule, should be preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma.

Examples for Practice.

1. Greece has given us three great historians namely Herodotus Xenophon and Thucydides.

2. Some writers divide the history of the world into four ages viz. the golden age the silver age the bronze age and the iron age.

3. Some writers divide the history of the world into four ages the golden age the silver age the bronze age and the iron age.

4. Cicero in his treatise on morals enumerates four cardinal virtues to wit Fortitude Temperance Justice and Prudence.

RULE 5. A General Term in Apposition to the Particulars under it. When a general term stands in apposition to several others which are particulars under it, the general term is separated from the particulars by a semi

colon, and the particulars are separated from each other by

commas.

NOTE. If the enumeration of the particulars is given with much formality, so as to make the several expressions complex, containing commas of their own, then these particulars must be separated from the general term by a colon, and from each other by semicolons; as,

Adjective Pronouns are divided into three classes; Distributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite.

Adjective Pronouns are divided into these three classes: first, the Distributive, which are four in number; secondly, the Demonstrative, which are four; and thirdly, the Indefinite, which are nine.

SECTION III.

The Colon.

The Colon marks a division of a sentence more nearly complete than that of a semicolon.

NOTE 1. The word is derived from the Greek rúdov (colon), a limb, or member. NOTE 2. The principal uses of the colon have already been given in Rules 4 and 5.

RULE 1. Greater Divisions of Complex Sentences.When the minor divisions of a complex sentence contain a semicolon, the greater divisions should be separated by a colon; thus,

As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not perceive it moving; and it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody ever saw it grow: so the advances we make in knowledge, as they consist of such insensible steps, are only perceivable by the distance.

RULE 2. Before a Quotation. A colon is used before a direct quotation; as,

Speaking of party, Pope makes this remark: "There never was any party, faction, sect, or cabal whatsoever, in which the most ignorant were not the most violent."

NOTE 1. If the quotation is of considerable length, consisting of several sentences, or begins a new paragraph, it should be preceded by both a colon and a dash; as, At the close of the meeting, the president rose and said:

"Ladies and Gentlemen, it is with extreme reluctance that I address you on this occasion," &c.

NOTE 2. If the quotation is merely some short saying, a comma is sufficient; as, Dr. Thomas Brown says, "The benevolent spirit is as universal as the miseries which are capable of being relieved."

RULE 3. Yes and No. The words yes and no, when in answer to a question, should be followed by a colon, provided the words which follow are a continuation or repetition of the answer; as,

“Can these words add vigor to your hearts? Yes: they can do it; they have often done it."

NOTE. Yes and no are often followed by some noun in the vocative case, or case independent; as, "Yes, sir," "Yes, my lords," &c. In such cases, the colon should come after the vocative; as, “Yes, sir: they can do it." "Yes, my lords: I am amazed at his lordship's speech."

RULE 4. Title-Pages. Sometimes the main title of a book is followed by an alternative or explanatory title, in apposition. If this alternative title is introduced by the conjunction or, a semicolon should precede the or, and a comma follow it; but if or is not used, then the alternative title should be separated from the main one by a colon; as,—

Literature in Letters; or, Manners, Art, Criticism, Biography, &c.

English Grammar: An Exposition of the Principles and Usages of the English Language.

NOTE. At the bottom of a title page it is customary to put the place of publication, the name of the publishers, and the year, in the order just named; and to insert a colon after the name of the place, a comma after the name of the publishers, and a period at the end. Example. Philadelphia: Eldredge & Brother, 1868.

Examples for Practice on the Rules for the Comma, the Semicolon, and the Colon.

[TO THE STUDENT. Give the Rule for each Comma, Semicolon, or Colon that you find in the examples which are punctuated; and insert these points where needed, giving the Rules for the same, in the examples not punctuated. In the unpunctuated sentences, this mark is inserted at the places where a point of some kind is due.]

1. No one denies that there are greater poets than Horace; and much has been said in disparagement even of some of the merits most popularly assigned to him, by scholars who have, nevertheless, devoted years of laborious study to the correction of his text or the elucidation of his meaning.

2. Satire always tends to dwarf and it cannot fail to carica