of the marks now used in punctuation. But the points did not come into common use until the time of Aldus Manutius, a learned printer of Venice, who reduced the matter to a system about the year 1500, and, by the extreme beauty and accuracy of his editions, gave it general currency.

NOTE 3. The word Capital is from the Latin caput, a head. The letters of the word or words forming the caput, heading, or title of a discourse, are called head-letters, or capitals.

NOTE 4. The capital letters were those first invented, and were in use many centuries before the invention of the small letters. The oldest manuscripts now in existence, some of which date as far back as the third century, are written entirely in capitals, and are likewise almost without points, and without spacing between the words. The small letters were first introduced about the seventh century; but, for some time after the introduction of the small letters, the capitals continued to be used much more than they are now.

NOTE 5. It is sometimes stated, in works on Rhetoric and Grammar, that the points are for the purposes of elocution, and directions are given to pupils to pause a certain time at each of the stops. It is true that a pause required for elocutionary purposes does sometimes coincide with a grammatical point, and so the one aids the other. Yet it should not be forgotten that the first and main end of the points is to mark grammatical divisions. Good elocution often requires a pause where there is no break whatever in the grammatical continuity, and where the insertion of a point would make nonsense. For instance, the most common of all the elocutionary pauses is that made for the purpose of emphasis. If we wish to make a word emphatic, the way to do so, except in rare cases, is not to pronounce it very loudly, but to make a pause after it. This pause calls attention to the word, and with only a slight change in the tone of the voice makes the word emphatic. The insertion of a point to mark this pause would often detach adjectives from their nouns, nominatives from their verbs, and would, in many other equally absurd ways, break up the connection of the sentence. The following line from Shakspeare requires after "words" and "thoughts" a pause equal to that ordinarily assigned to a semicolon, perhaps equal to that assigned to a period. "My words fly up, my thoughts remain below."

If a point were inserted to mark this pause, the whole meaning of the sentence would be obscured. Thus: "My words; fly up, my thoughts; remain below." If it were desirable to mark these elocutionary pauses by typographical arrangements, perhaps the best way would be to do it by spacing. Thus:

3. The principal grammatical points are five; namely,

NOTE. These points have various degrees of disjunctive force, in separating the parts of a sentence from each other. This force may be expressed briefly, as follows: The Period, except when used for an abbreviation, marks the greatest separation of all,

the parts between which it is placed being thereby rendered grammatically entirely independent of each other; the Colon marks a separation somewhat less than that of the Period; the Semicolon, less than that of the Colon; and the Comma, less than that of the Semicolon. The Interrogation, though usually counted as equivalent to a period, may be equivalent to a comma, a semicolon, a colon, or a period, according to eircumstances.*

4. Besides the five points already named, several other characters are used for similar purposes. The most common of these are the following:

The Comma marks the smallest of the grammatical divisions of discourse that require a point.

NOTE 1. The word Comma (Greek kóμμα, from κónтw, to cut) denotes something cut off, a section. It was used originally to denote, not the mark, but the portion of the sentence thus set off. The same is true of the words semicolon and colon. They meant originally portions of discourse, not, as now, the marks by which those portions are set off. Period, Interrogation, Parenthesis, and some other like words, are used in both senses; they mean portions of discourse, and also the marks by which those portions are set off.

NOTE 2. The uses of the comma, which are very numerous, may nearly all be reduced to two heads. 1. The comma is used to set off by itself any part of a sentence which is, in some measure, detached in meaning from the rest, and which has a sort of grammatical coherence and completeness of its own. 2. The comma is used to mark an ellipsis of some kind. Example: "Reading maketh a full man; conference, a ready man; writing, an exact man." Here the ellipsis of the verb maketh, after "conference," and after "writing," is indicated by the insertion of the comma.

NOTE 3. Although nearly every conceivable instance of the use of the comma may be reduced under one or the other of these heads, yet for practical convenience in

*There seems no more necessity for saying Interrogation Point, Exclamation Point, &c., than for saying Comma Point, Semicolon Point. Custom, however, still obliges us to use the expression in some connections.

teaching its use, the various instances may very properly be classified, forming a series of independent, though connected rules.*

RULE 1. Parenthetical Expressions.-Phrases and single words, used parenthetically, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

NOTE 1. Phrases and words are parenthetical when they are not essential to the meaning and structure of the sentence in which they stand. Such words and phrases belong rather to some unexpressed thought that is in the mind, than to the thought actually expressed. Thus, "It is mind, after all, which does the work of the world." Here the phrase "after all" does not belong to the verb "does." The author does not mean to say that mind does the work of the world, after doing everything else. In like manner, it does not modify any other part of the expressed sentence. On the contrary, it belongs to some unexpressed thought, as though we were to say, "After all that can be claimed for other agents, we may still claim for the mind, that it does the work of the world." Sometimes the parenthetical word or phrase refers to what is expressed in the preceding sentence. Thus, "The danger was fully explained to him. His passions, however, prevented his seeing it." Parenthetical expressions, then, are such as are not necessary to the structure and meaning of the sentence in which they stand, if taken alone, but they are a part of the machinery, so to speak, by which the sentence is connected with some preceding sentence, or with some unexpressed sentence or thought existing in the mind of the writer. They are, in fact, of a conjunctional, rather than of an adverbial character.

NOTE 2. Many phrases and clauses, now treated as parenthetical expressions, and separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, were formerly inclosed by marks of parenthesis. The difference between a parenthesis and a parenthetical expression is mainly one of degree. If the clause or expression, thus thrust into the body of a sentence, is altogether independent in character, and may be omitted without disturbing the construction, or impairing the meaning, it is still usually inclosed in a parenthesis. But commas are gradually displacing the parenthesis, except in extreme and very manifest cases.

NOTE 3. Some of the phrases in common use, which require to be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the following:

When these parenthetical expressions come at the beginning, or at the end of a sentence, they are, of course, set off by only a single comma; as, "To be sure, the man was rather conceited." "The affair passed off to your satisfaction, no doubt." See foot-note below.

*In framing these rules, it is customary to say, of certain clauses or sections of a sentence, that they are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, meaning that they have a comma before and a comma after. In some instances, the section thus designated occurs at the beginning of the sentence, in which case it will of course have no comma before it; or, it may occur at the end of a sentence, in which case it will have after it, not a comma, but a period, or some other mark greater than a comma. In the great majority of cases, however, the sections designated by the use of the comma occur in the body of the sentence, requiring a comma before and a comma after; and the rules will be expressed in this general manner, leaving it to the common sense of the student to make the necessary correction in the case of sections

NOTE 4. Some of the single words used parenthetically, and ordinarily requiring to be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas, are the following:

therefore,
then,
however,

perhaps,

namely,
consequently,
indeed,
too,

moreover,
surely,

accordingly,

finally.

NOTE 5. Most of the words last named are capable of two constructions. They may belong either to the proposition as a whole, or to a single word in it. It is only when used in the former sense that they require to be set off by commas. Two or three examples will show the difference:

On this statement, then, you may entirely rely. Then I believed you, now I do not. I thought, too, that you were discontented. I think you are too selfish. He promised, however, to set about reform at once. However much he promised, it was but little that he performed.

In all these cases, it will be noticed that when the word has an adverbial character, no commas are required; but when the word becomes connective or conjunctional, it must be set off from the rest by commas.

NOTE 6. Some words not of a parenthetical character, yet when standing at the beginning of a sentence, and referring to the sentence as a whole, rather than to a particular word, are set off by a comma; as, "Well, do as you like." "Why, this is all wrong." Some of the words thus used are well, why, now, yes, no, nay, again, further, first, secondly, thirdly, &c. In like manner, here and there, now and then, when used to introduce contrasted expressions, are set off by a comma; as, "Here, all is peace and quietness; there, all is turmoil and strife."

Examples for Practice.*

1. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to real enjoyment. 2. The locomotive bellows as it were from the fury of passion. 3. He knows very well come what may that the note will be paid. 4. He had no doubt great aptitude for learning languages.

5. He went home accordingly and arranged his business in the manner described.

6. There are in truth only two things to be considered namely his honesty and his ability.

thus cut off at the beginning or at the end of a sentence, and without stopping to make a special exception under each rule.

*TO THE TEACHER. 1. In these and the other examples for practice which will be given throughout the book, constant vigilance must be used to prevent the pupils from marking the corrections in the book. A book so marked is valueless for the purpose of study or instruction. It should at once be destroyed, and replaced by a new copy at the expense of the offending party. A stated inspection of the books, for the purpose of preventing this fraud, is as necessary a part of the teacher's duty, as it is to examine the exercises presented.

2. The exercises should not be brought in written out beforehand, but should in all cases be written in the class-room. This should be considered an essential part of the recitation. There is no other way of ascertaining that the pupil makes the corrections from his own independent judgment, and unless he does this, the exercise is a mere waste of time.

3. In most cases, the following will be found a convenient mode of procedure: 1. Let the students seriatim present their books at the teacher's desk for inspection, each book, as presented, being open at the page containing the lesson, and let the books remain there piled, until the lesson is over. 2. Let the teacher dictate the examples, and the students write and correct them, using for this purpose either the blackboards, slates, or paper, according to circumstances.

7. Come then and let us reason together.

8. No nation in short is free from danger.

9. When however the hour for the trial came, the man was not to be found.

10. Why those are the very books you want.

11. I proceed fourthly to prove the fact from your own admissions.

12. On the other hand there is great danger in delay.

13. We must however pay some respect to the opinions of one who has had so large an experience.

14. I have shown how just and equitable the arrangement is; and now what is the fair conclusion?

15. Attend first to the study of arithmetic; and secondly to that of algebra.

16. If I cannot induce you to grant my request, why I shall almost regret having made it.

17. But on the other hand do not suppose that there is no use in trying.

18. Feudalism is in fact the embodiment of pride.

19. The meeting after all was something of a failure.

20. Besides it may be of the greatest importance to you in your

business.

21. Thou knowest come what may that the light of truth can never be put out.

RULE 2. Intermediate Expressions. Clauses and expressions, not parenthetical in character, yet so placed as to come between some of the essential parts of the sentence, as, for instance, between the subject and the predicate, may be called intermediate expressions, and they should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

NOTE. Care should be taken to distinguish these intermediate expressions from such as are properly restrictive in their character. An expression is restrictive, when it limits the meaning of some particular word to some particular sense. Thus, "The man who plants the field ought to reap the harvest." Here it is not "the man" merely, but "the man who plants the field," that is the subject of "ought." A separation of the relative and its adjuncts from "man," by means of commas, would destroy the sense. The clause, therefore, is restrictive. It limits the meaning to that particular man. But suppose I say, "Joseph, who happened to be in the field at the time, saw the carriage approach, and, in an ecstasy of delight, hastened to meet it." Here, the expression, "who happened to be in the field at the time," is properly a relative clause, and comes under Rule 4, (p. 24); and the expression, "in an ecstasy of delight," is properly intermediate, and comes under Rule 2. The former breaks