torn by the dog. Constantinople was taken by the Turks. Italy was invaded by the barbarians. The wheat will be injured by the rain. The state had been conquered by a tyrant.

3. Which of the following verbs are in the active voice, and which in the passive voice?

Anne cut the thread. The thread was cut by Anne. George split the wood. The wood was split by George. The boy read the book. The book was read by the boy. The man shot the squirrel. Thomas sees us. The horse kicked the cow. The horse was kicked by the cow. The cow was kicked by the horse. Nuts are eaten by squirrels. The horse eats the corn.

John reads. The book was read. Thomas will write. The letter was written. My coat was torn. We have been deceived. Mary will recite. The lesson has been recited.

MOODS.

MOODS are different modes of expressing the action or state. There are four moods; namely, the indicative, the imperative, the infinitive, and the participle, or participial mood.

Note K.)

(See

The INDICATIVE MOOD is used to express direct assertion and interrogation; as, "I walk;" "I can walk;" "Do I walk?" "Can I walk?"

The IMPERATIVE MOOD is used to express command, exhortation, entreaty, or permission; as, "Study your lesson;" "Obey your parents;" "Save my child;" "Go in peace."

The INFINITIVE MOOD partakes of the nature of the verb and of that of the noun; as, "To play is pleasant;" "John loves to walk."

Here to play expresses action, like the verb, and forms the subject of the verb is, like a noun.

The PARTICIPLE partakes of the nature of the verb and of that of the adjective; as, "I see a man cutting wood;" "She died lamented by all."

Here cutting expresses action, like a verb, and belongs to the noun man, like an adjective. Lamented expresses action received, like a

verb in the passive voice, and it belongs to the pronoun she, like an adjective.

Remarks.-1. The modes of expressing the action or state are almost unlimited, and some grammarians have made a large number of moods. We read of the declarative mood, the definitive, the rogative, the interrogative, the requisitive, the percontative, the assertive, the vocative, the precative, the deprecative, the responsive, the concessive, the permissive, the optative, the potential, the dubitative, the conjunctive, the subjunctive, etc. It is possible for a language to exist with a peculiar form for each different mode of expressing the action or state; but no language has so great a number. Grammar is concerned with those modes only that are represented by peculiar forms.

2. The indicative mood may be employed in propositions expressing conditions, suppositions, and other things which are not direct assertions; as, "If he has money he will pay you." But here the condition is expressed, not by the form of the verb has, but by the conjunction if. The verb itself expresses a direct assertion," he has money;" the word if making the proposition equivalent to "grant this fact which the verb asserts, he has money."

3. With the second person of the imperative mood the subject is generally understood; as, "Depart." Here the subject you is understood. But when the imperative takes the first or the third person the subject is expressed. (See page 95.)

4. The infinitive mood is usually accompanied by the sign to; as, "He wishes to learn." But after certain verbs, among which are may, can, must, might, could, would, and should, the simple form (without to) is used; as, “I can learn ;” “I may learn;” "I could learn."

5. The infinitive mood takes its name infinitive (not limited) from the fact that it is not limited to a subject. To distinguish them from verbs in this mood, verbs in the indicative and imperative are called finite verbs. The participle also is not limited.

6. The infinitive sometimes takes a subject, as will be noticed hereafter; but in this use it loses its distinctive character.

7. The participle derives its name from the Latin participo, to partake, and is so called because it is a form of the verb that partakes of the properties of the adjective. Some make of the participle a separate part of speech; but it has no greater claims to this distinction than the infinitive mood has. They are both participles in the etymological sense of the term; the one being a verbal form partaking of the nature of the adjective, the other a verbal form partaking of the nature of the noun.

8. A participle denotes an action or state, and is transitive or intransitive; and when transitive is used in the active and passive voices; but it can not be so used as to express an affirmation. Like an adjective it belongs to a noun; as, "I see a man cutting wood." Here cutting denotes an action, is in the active voice, and has an object like a transitive verb; and it belongs to the noun man like an adjective.

9. Participles are intermediate between verbs and adjectives, as zoöphytes are between animals and vegetables. Lord Bacon gives the name participle to those productions which seem to form a connecting link between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. "The participles or confiners between plants and living creatures are such chiefly as are fixed and have no local motion of remove, though they have a motion in their parts. There is a fabulous narration that in the northern countries there should be an herb that groweth in the likeness of a lamb and feedeth upon the grass in such sort as it will bare the grass round about."-Natural History, page 609.

THE GERUND, OR PARTICIPIAL NOUN.

nd, or participial noun, has the same form with the partibut it is a noun, like the infinitive, while the participle ve; as, "He commenced playing" "He began to play;" in playing."*

ind, like the infinitive, may be modified as the finite ified, by adverbs, by the objective case, by the predicateetc.; as, "He is engaged in studying arithmetic;" "By enly upon them I frightened them."

may have compound forms; as, “After having studied so ou must know your lesson;' "Was he made better by ited?"

-1. It is probable that the gerund has been formed from the Angloe in an. This at a later period became en, and the gerund in ing is at unced by the great mass of people as if it ended in en. The termiafterward changed to ing, an ending borrowed from the Anglo-Saxon ung, ing.

modern grammarians will have it, that a participle governed by a a 'participial noun;' and yet, when they come to parse an adverb or llowing it, their 'noun' becomes a 'participle' again, and not a ‘noun.' s to dodge from one class to an other, is not only unphilosophical, but surd. Among those who thus treat this construction of the participle, hink, are Butler, Hart, Weld, Wells, and S. S. Greene."-Goold Brown, English Grammars," p. 633.

probable that any of the persons mentioned has made the participial " in this "ridiculously absurd" way. The doctrine in "Butler's mmar" is that the participial noun is a noun like the infinitive and e modified as the infinitive is modified. But Mr. Brown could never he participial noun. He scarcely ever mentions it without blundering nnation of some of the most common idioms of the language, simply nfounds the noun with the adjective.

be observed also that in English there are two infinitives, one in ing, sound and spelling as the participle present, from which, however, it refully distinguished; for example, 'Rising early is healthful,' and 'It o rise early,' are equivalent. Grammarians have produced much needty in speaking of the participle in 'ing' being employed so and so; hanifest that that very employment of the word constitutes it to all purposes an infinitive, and not a participle. The advantage of the ing is that it may be used in the nominative or in any oblique case.”— gic: Book II., chap. i, sec. 3.

pronunciation a remnant of "the ancient speech"? We often see it he uneducated "clip off their g's" and say in for ing; but the sound by ng is a simple sound, and there is no such thing as "clipping off it. If we say in for ing, we exchange one simple sound (ng) for another d (n), which is neither shorter nor more easily pronounced. However, hat is used for ing, but en, or simply n, the vowel being suppressed; as,

EXERCISES.

In what mood is each of the verbs in the following exercises?

"John ran."

Ran is in the indicative mood-it is used to express a direct assertion.

Wishes is in the indicative mood-it is used to express a direct assertion.

To learn is in the infinitive mood-it partakes of the nature of the verb and of the noun.

Note.-Here to learn is used as a noun in the objective case, the object of the verb wishes.

"To study is pleasant."

To study is in the infinitive mood-it partakes of the nature of the verb and of the noun.

Note. -Here to study is used as a noun in the nominative case, the subject of the verb is.

“William is studying."

Studying is a participle — it partakes of the nature of the verb and of the adjective.

Note.-Here studying belongs to the noun William, like an adjective.

"John can read."

Can is a verb in the indicative mood-it is used to express a direct assertion.

-it par

Read is in the infinitive mood, to being omitted after can—i takes of the nature of the verb and of the noun.

Note.-Here read is used as a noun in the objective case, the object of the verb can. The original meaning of the word can is to know. John knows what? He knows to read.*

"William should study."

Should is in the indicative mood-it is used to express a direct

assertion.

Study is in the infinitive mood, to being omitted after should—it partakes of the meaning of the verb under the form of a noun.

Note. Here study is used as a noun in the objective case, the object of the verb should. Should study is equivalent to owes to study. William owes what? He owes to study.

"He may see me if he wishes."

Wishes is in the indicative mood-it is used to express a direct

assertion.

The pupil is not expected to enter into these details. The notes are given merely to illustrate the general principle.

Note. The clause if he wishes expresses a supposition by means of the conjunction if; but he wishes expresses a direct assertion.

"Run, John."

Run is in the imperative mood—it is used to express a command.

"Come you in peace?"

Come is in the indicative mood-it is used to express an interrogation.

[Observe that the infinitive is usually preceded by the sign to, except after may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. The participial mood may be called simply the participle. Most participles end in ing or ed.]

George saw a lion.
William ought to

John ran. Peter jumped. The bird sings. Mary wishes to learn. Jane desires to study. study. William should study. William must study. studying. The child learns to talk. John can read. singing. He died respected by all. The child is talking. To study is pleasant.

William is The bird is

If you sin, you must suffer. Orlando took my pen, though I wanted it myself. I would study, if I had my book. I must go, though it rains. He may go, though you must stay. If he saw you, he would speak to you. He should not touch the watch, unless his father gives him permission. He may see me, if he wishes.

Run, John. your parents. O, save my life!

Mary, come to me. Children, obey Cease to do evil. Learn to do well.

William, study. Strive to excel. Stay with me to-day. must not play now. Robert, I wish you and honor your mother.

Robert, play with me. You would play with me. Love

Come you in peace? Can you read? Must you go? Should you know him if you should see him? May I read this book? Could he fail if he should attempt it? Where is Thomas? Is he there? Have you my pen? Know you the land where the citrons bloom?

James is writing. Mary is sewing. Defeated and betrayed, the man became weary of life. The rain is falling where they lie. I see a man coming through the gate. Deserted at his utmost need, on the cold ground he lies. James, are you reading? Though I am reading, I hear you.

Love not sleep, lest thou shouldst come to poverty. Take heed, lest some one may deceive you. If thine enemy should hunger, feed him. Love not sleep, lest thou [here the verb shouldst, on which the infinitive come depends, is omitted] come to poverty. Take heed, lest some one deceive you. If thine enemy hunger, feed him. Make hay while the sun shines.