That is, given I had known he was your son, he had never been slain by me; given every man had back his own, you should be heir of it. This use of gin leads to the suspicion that gif is not the imperative, but the participle gifen apocopated.

Writers on comparative philology, like the devotees of other new sciences, sometimes push their principles to extremes. In the "New Illustrated Edition" of Webster's Dictionary if is presented as a "v. t. (verb transitive) but commonly called a conjunction." "The Anglo-Saxon gif," the editor goes on to say, "has been explained by Horne Tooke, and by others after him, as simply the imperative, second person singular, of the verb gifan, to give. If would in that case be equivalent to grant, allow, admit. Thus, if thou wilt,-that is, give the fact that thou wilt,-thou canst make me whole; if John shall arrive in season,-grant, suppose that he shall arrive,—I will send him with a message. This etymology is plausible in itself, and is favored by the old use of that after if; as, if that John shall arrive, etc." But at this point the editor, having the fear of the comparative philologists before his eyes, suddenly, like Sir Boyle Roche's politician, "turns his back on himself" and says, "But it [the etymology just given] is not supported by the form and use of the corresponding words in other Teutonic languages, and it must therefore be looked upon as uncertain at least, if not as improbable." The principle here assumed, that no language has any peculiarities of its own, any thing different from other languages of the same great family, is shown to be absurd by the mere statement of it. It should be observed that gif is not derived FROM gif, but that it is gif. And gif is give (giv), whether it is regarded as the imperative or as the participle gifen (given) apocopated, there being no greater difference between the sounds of ƒ and v than there is between the two sounds of th. With is the same word whether pronounced with the sound of th as in thin or with that of th as in this; nephew is the same word, whether it is pronounced nefu or nevu. On account of the failure of other Teutonic languages to use words corresponding to give in the same way we are to deny that gif is gif and that "that that is is"!

7. Though is said to be from the Anglo-Saxon theah, admit, assume; but is it not from the participle thought (Anglo-Saxon thoht)? "Though (thought, supposed, assumed) he slay me, yet will I trust in him;" "Though (thought, supposed, assumed, considered) that he was worthy, he was wise."-Chaucer.

8. In a regular discourse all the parts are connected in some way, but the name conjunction is applied to such words only as can not be placed in any other class. For this reason, in like manner, in addition, by the way, at the same time, in accordance with this, and many other phrases mark connection; but it is not proper to call them conjunctions.

9. For as much as (for much in that degree in which, sometimes written forasmuch as), in as much as (inasmuch as), in so much that (insomuch that), as well as, and other phrases of the kind may for the sake of convenience be called connective phrases. But the separate words have each their own meaning; as, “John read as well (properly) as James;" "John as well (truly) as James read." The adverb well has in the latter sentence a different meaning from that which it has in the former, but the construction in the two sentences is the same. "His brother writes as well as he.' This may be taken in two different senses by giving different meanings to well; but, whatever meaning is given to the word, the grammatical construction is not changed.

10. The adverbs yet, also, still, otherwise, moreover, furthermore, besides, therefore, wherefore, else, hence, thence, likewise, nevertheless, accordingly, consequently, etc., are sometimes called conjunctions. "Though he made great efforts, yet (in spite of this) he failed." Yet, adverb modifying failed. "He made great efforts; still he failed." "He is a chemist, and he is also (in addition to this) a poet." Also, adverb modifying is. "He is likewise a poet." "He is moreover a poet." "He is furthermore a poet." "He neglected his business, therefore (for that reason) he failed." Therefore, adverb modifying failed. "Wherefore (for which reason) he

failed."

"Hence (for this reason) he failed." "Whence (for which reason) he failed." "Thence he failed." "Consequently he failed." "Accordingly he failed." "I have lost my money; otherwise (under other circumstances) I could help you." "I have lost my money; else I could help you." "He was forbidden to go; nevertheless (not the less) he went." Besides is more properly a preposition. "He is a chemist; he is besides [this] a poet."

11. In such sentences as the following so and as are by some regarded as conjunctions: "She is as amiable as her sister;" "As two is to four, so is five to ten;""No lamb was e'er so mild as he;" "He acted as he was directed to act." In these sentences as and so are adverbs. She is amiable in the degree in which her sister is amiable. Five is to ten in the proportion in which two is to four. No lamb was e'er mild in the degree in which he is mild. He acted in the manner in which he was directed to act.

EXERCISES.

What do the following conjunctions connect?

Virtue is praised and

Andrew and Thomas went to the river. neglected. The moon and stars were shining. You will be despised, and he will be honored. George and James will go. George or James will go. Both George and James will go. Either George or James will go. Neither George nor James will go. He is happy because he is good. Because he is good he is happy. John will go, but Mary will stay. He was poor, though he might have been rich. Though he might have been rich, he was poor. Repent, lest ye perish. I will not go, unless you will stay. Unless you will stay, I will not go.

PARSING EXERCISES.

The preceding exercises may be parsed in full.

"Andrew and Thomas went to the river."

And is a conjunction-it connects two nouns, Andrew and Thomas, in the same construction.

Rule.-Conjunctions connect propositions or similar parts of propositions.

"You will be despised, and he will be honored."

And is a conjunction—it connects the two propositions, you will be despised and he will be honored.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.

What is a conjunction? Can you give a sentence in which a conjunction connects Douns in the same construction? Adjectives in the same construction? Adjuncts modifying the same word? Adverbs modifying the same word? Prepositions having the same object? Verbs having the same subject? Verbs having the same object? Infinitives in the same construction? Gerunds in the same construction? Into what two classes are conjunctions divided? What is a coördinative conjunction? A subordinative conjunction? Which are the principal coördinative conjunctions? The principal subordinative conjunctions? How are both, either, and neither nood2 What two coniunctions are mentioned as correlative?

An INTERJECTION is a word used in exclamat no grammatical connection; as, "O! what a fal

The following are some of the principal interjed alas, alack, ha, fudge, pish, tush, pshaw, poh, pooh, fi halloo, lo, aha, hail, huzza, hurrah, tut, humph, heigh bravo, adieu, avaunt.

Some words belonging to other parts of speech are tions when they are uttered in an unconnected and f as, Strange! what! behold! off! away! farewell! hush

Remarks.-1. Bravo is an Italian adjective. Adieu is compo words à and dieu, meaning to God [I commend you]. O dear me the Italian phrase, O Dio mio, O my God!

2. The word interjection is from the Latin interjicere, to throw and interjections derive their name from being regarded as throw of a discourse without being grammatically connected with any p 3. Some writers make a distinction between 0 and oh, using of the person addressed, and oh in other cases; as, "Hear, O I happy I am!" But this distinction is generally disregarded, a going out of use.

4. An interjection, like the cry of an animal, expresses the m sentence. When a child that strikes its head against a table cri "I am hurt." In "Alas! those happy days are no more!" alas n or something equivalent.

This fact furnishes an explanation of such expressions as some vast wilderness!" "O that I had the wings of a dove!" shouldst die!" When he uses such expressions the speaker ha sentence whose meaning is expressed by the interjection, and he in character as an interjection and makes of it a leading proposition. that supposes an ellipsis, such as "O! [I wish] for a lodge in some is unsatisfactory. There is not an ellipsis of I wish, but O is used upon your law"-"Shame be upon your law."

PARSING EXERCISES.

"He died, alas! in early youth."

Alas is an interjection-it is used in exclamation and matical connection.

Rule.-Interjections have no grammatical connection with other

He died, alas! in early youth. Ah! then and there to and fro. O! make her a grave where the sunbeams re

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.

What is an interjection? Name some of the principal interjecti

SAME WORD IN DIFFERENT CLASSES.

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SAME WORD IN DIFFERENT CLASSES.

Many words belong to more than one part of speech; iron, for instance, may be either a noun, a verb, or an adjective; as, 'Iron is a hard metal;" "To iron clothes;" "An iron rod."

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EXERCISES.

Name the parts of speech to which the words in italics belong:

He is your equal. Equal rights. The Gauls equal the Britons in bravery. James was his rival for the crown. They have rival claims. They rival each other. They counterfeit grief. Counterfeit coin. It is a counterfeit. He paid fancy prices for them. This struck his fancy. You fancy riches more. He is the worst boy in the school. When the worst comes to the worst. They worst their enemies. A worse chair I have never seen. She reads worse than ever. He is now a better boy. He reads better than she does. Can they better their condition? To get the better of an enemy. That's an ill phrase. Ill fares the land. There is some ill a-brewing to my rest.

The way was long. I long for a change. Long live the king. The right hand. He has a right to the property. He acted right in that matter Let us right the injured man. You wrong me, Brutus. He gave a wrong answer. Friend, I do thee no wrong. He read the passage wrong. The stream is very rapid. He is the very man. He is less idle than she. My happiness is less than yours. The last day of the week. It can not last longer. When was it she last walked? The cobbler is not to go beyond his last. His back is weak. He made the horse back. Do not look back. He lives somewhere in the back settlements.

He is reading a poem. This is pleasant reading. She is writing a letter. The writing was illegible. No man is perfectly happy. He is no better than he should be. This is the man that I saw. I have seen that book. For a while he was very diligent. They while away the time. Make hay while the sun shines. This is his second attempt. A second in a duel. He will succeed if you second him. He reads well. Is your father well? See the water well out of the ground. The bucket is in the well.

Put on your coat. Put the book on the table. Up rose the sun, and up rose Emily. The squirrel ran up the tree. The best boy. I love him best. I will do my best. him well. This is a fit time. This is a good fit.

His clothes fit

SYNTAX.

SENTENCE-PROPOSITION-SUBJECT-PREDICATE.

SYNTAX treats of the structure of sentences.

A SENTENCE is an arrangement of words in one or more propositions to express a thought; as, "John learns;” “John learns when he studies."

A PROPOSITION is an arrangement of words containing a subject and a predicate; "John learns;" "He studies.”

The SUBJECT denotes that of which something is affirmed; as, "John learns."

The PREDICATE denotes that which is affirmed; as, “John learns."

The word affirm is here taken in a general sense, applying to questions, commands, entreaties, and exhortations.

Remark. The name of the person addressed forms no part of the proposition, being employed merely to call attention to what is contained in the proposition; as, "William, John learns."

EXERCISES.

1. Name the person or thing (or persons or things) spoken of in each of the following sentences, and then tell what is said of that person or thing (or those persons or things):

Mary learns. Thomas reads. James studies. Mary learns rapidly. James studies diligently. Thomas reads well. Thomas reads poetry well. Mary learns very rapidly. James studies arithmetic very diligently. Mary learns grammar and music very rapidly.

Books please. Good books please. Some good books please. Boys run. Those boys run. Those three young boys run. Rain fell. A heavy rain fell. The moon shines. The stars fade. Sparrows fly.

Ducks swim.

The moon shines bright. The stars fade from the sky. The sun sets in the west. The sparrows fly from tree to tree. The ducks swim from shore to shore. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. A heavy rain fell during the night. Nine beautiful ducks swam from shore to shore.