3. It is to be observed that but few of these words are always conjunctive adverbs. Some of them are sometimes used instead of adjuncts containing interrogative or indefinite pronouns; as, "When (at what time) will he come?" "Tell me when (at what time) he will come."

4. It is easy to distinguish conjunctive adverbs from others. If the adverb is equivalent to two adjuncts, it is a conjunctive adverb; if it is not equivalent to two adjuncts, it is not a conjunctive adverb. Many writers on grammar seem unable to see the distinction. "I know not how it is done.' Here how is equivalent to the manner in which. The first part, 'the manner,' is the object of know, and the second, ' in which,' is the adjunct of 'is done.'"-Bullions's Anal. and Prac. English Grammar. If how were equivalent to the manner in which, it would not be a conjunctive adverb according to the writer's own definition; for the manner is not an adjunct. But how is not equivalent to the manner in which, but to in what manner, and the object of know is the whole proposition, how it is done. "I saw how a pin is made."-Kerl's CommonSchool Grammar. How is not a conjunctive adverb. What did I see? How a pin is made. "Can you tell how he manages to recite so well?" "No one knows when the world will end." "I know where Patagonia is."-Weld and Quackenbos's New English Grammar. Not one of the italicised words is a conjunctive adverb. "I do not know

why I was sent, how I can cross the river, where I am to go, or when I must return.”— Quackenbos's Eng. Grammar. There is not a single conjunctive adverb here. There is of course a close connection between the transitive verb know and the dependent propositions, because these propositions are the objects of the verb; but the conjunctive quality is not in the adverb. "No one knew how to use gold more effectually than Philip, king of Macedon.' The leading verb knew is modified by the adverb how, which is itself modified by the infinitive to use."-Quackenbos's Eng. Grammar. The confusion here is remarkable. Knew is not modified by how, but by its object how to use gold; and to use is modified by how, not how by to use. "I know not whither he has gone."-Mason's English Grammar. Whither is not a conjunctive adverb. "I know when he wrote the letter;' when connects the clauses I know and he wrote, and modifies know and wrote."-Burt's Practical English Grammar. When does not modify know-does not tell the time of knowing. The two propositions are connected as verb and object. What do I know? When he wrote the letter.

5. When the prepositions after, before, ere, till, until, since are placed before propositions they are generally regarded as conjunctive adverbs; but it is better to regard them as prepositions having as objects noun-propositions instead of nouns. "I saw him before his departure;" "I saw him before he departed." The preposition without (in the sense of except, unless) was formerly much used before propositions; as, “I will not go without he goes." (See foot-note, p. 187, and Rule III, Remark 4.)

EXERCISES.

Which of the following adverbs are conjunctive adverbs?

The book is where you laid it. Where did you lay it? Do you know where you laid it? It was lying on the table when I saw it. When did you see it? I do not know when I saw it. Stay while I am gone. You may play after I am gone. Do not play as you go to school. When will he return? Can you tell when he will return? He rode the horse before he bought it. He reads whenever (at any time at which) he can find an apportunity. He sleeps wherever night overtakes him. There might they see whence Po and Ister came. Tell how he formed your shining frame. I know why he did it.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

A few adverbs are compared by adding er and est; as, soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest; fast, faster, fastest.

The following are irregularly compared: badly or ill, worse, worst; far, farther, farthest; forth, further, furthest; little, less, least; much, more, most; well, better, best. Rather is the comparative of an obsolete positive rath, rathe, soon, early. The positive rathe is used by Tennyson: "Rathe she rose."

With many adverbs more and most may be used as with adjectives; as, more frequently, most frequently; but more and most should be regarded as themselves modifiers, not as parts of the adverbs which they modify.

PARSING EXERCISES.

She sings sweetly. He behaved badly. Beasts should be treated kindly. Be more cautious. Act more wisely. I have seen him often. He writes very rapidly. He studies when you play.

I know not whence you come. Where the tree falls there will it lie. How did he act? Nobly. Where does he live? There. The oftener I see him the more I like him. He is a very worthy man. Perseverance generally succeeds.

Improve time as it flies. Live while you live. He is very easily offended. She has been liberally educated. The vine still clings to the moldering wall. Where vice prevails misery abounds.

Where ignorance is bliss
'Tis folly to be wise.-Gray.

"She sings sweetly."

Sweetly is an adverb-it modifies the verb sings.

Rule.-Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

"He studies when you play."

When is a conjunctive adverb-it is equivalent to two adjuncts, at the time and at which; it modifies the verbs studies and play.

Rule.-Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.

Of degree.

Of affirma

What is an adverb? Mention some adverbs of time. Of place. Of manner. Of cause, reason, inference. Of addition and exclusion. tion, negation, or doubt. What is a conjunctive adverb? How many verbs does a conjunctive adverb modify? Are adverbs ever compared? How is badly or ill compared? Far? Little? Much? Well? What are more and most when they modify adverbs?

CONJUNCTIONS.

A CONJUNCTION is a word used to connect propositions or similar parts of propositions; as, "Magnanimity in politics is not seldom the truest wisdom, and a great empire and little minds go ill together."-Burke.

Here the first and connects two propositions; the second and connects two logical subjects, a great empire and little minds.

Conjunctions, besides connecting propositions, may connect—

1. Nouns in the same construction; as, "Peter and John went to the temple;" "He spoke to Mary and me.'

2. Adjectives or participles belonging to the same noun; as, "My father gave me serious and excellent advice;" "The soul's dark cottage, battered and decayed."

3. Adjuncts modifying the same word; as, "He finds them in the woods and by the streams."

4. Adverbs modifying the same word; as, "We are fearfully and wonderfully made."

5. Prepositions having the same object; as, "He walks up and down

the street."

6. Verbs having the same subject; as, "Birds chirp and sing."

7. Verbs having the same object; as, "They gather and eat the fruit." 8. Infinitives in the same construction; as, "They go out to see and be seen."

9. Gerunds in the same construction; as, "He is engaged in assessing and collecting taxes."

Remarks. Some grammarians say that conjunctions always connect propositions, "Peter and John went to the temple" being equivalent to "Peter went to the temple," and "John went to the temple." But there are sentences which can not be analyzed in this way; as, "John and Mary are a handsome couple;" "Two and three make five;" "A great empire and little minds go ill together." We can not say "John is a handsome couple, and Mary is a handsome couple."

Conjunctions are divided into two classes, coördinative and subordinative.

A COÖRDINATIVE CONJUNCTION connects propositions, or parts of propositions, of equal rank; as, “Art is long, and time is fleeting;" "Rhoda and Lila have come;" "James or Edward will gain the prize;" "Laura will go, but Alice will stay."

A SUBORDINATIVE CONJUNCTION connects a modifying proposition to the modified part of the principal proposition; as, "Repent, lest ye perish;" "As the wind is favorable, the ship will soon sail."

And, both, either, or, neither, nor, but are the principal coördinative conjunctions.

For, since, as, because, if, whether, though, although, unless, lest are the principal subordinative conjunctions.

Both is used with and, either with or, and neither with nor, to mark the connection more forcibly; as, "Both John and James were there;" "Either John or James was there;" "Neither John nor James was there."

Whether and or are sometimes correlative; as, "I do not know whether he will go or stay."

Remarks.-1. Both was originally merely a limiting adjective referring to two objects; as, "John and James were both present;" "Both [persons] John and James were present;" "He lost both [things] his money and his character." From its emphatic character in such sentences both seemed to give force to the connective idea expressed by and, and this secondary office has often overshadowed the original meaning, so that the word has been employed to mark a connection between more than two; as, "To whom both heven and erthe and see is seen."-Chaucer. "He assisted both the Tatler, Spectator, and Guardian."-Johnson. "They who both made peace with France, composed the internal dissensions of the country, and restored its free constitution."— Brougham. "Both he and they and you."— Shakespeare. "Both man and bird and beast."--Coleridge. Either and neither were also originally limiting adjectives, each referring to two objects; but they have come to be used as conjunctions marking the connection between several objects; as, "Either so distant, so little, or so inconsiderable."-Addison. "Neither death nor life nor angels nor principalities nor powers."-English Bible.

2. The word that is often used before propositions; as, "He is a fool in that he believes others to be as deceitful as he ;"" He is a fool in that [thing] he believes others to be as deceitful as he." "He was punished for that [thing] he had broken a positive law." In each of these sentences that is a limiting adjective belonging to a noun understood, the following proposition being in apposition with the noun. When that is omitted the proposition itself stands as the object of the preposition. When Shylock says of Antonio, "I hate him for he is a Christian," he means “I hate him for being a Christian," for being a preposition having he is a Christian for its object. (See foot-note, p. 206.)

3. Such prepositions as before, after, since have come to be used directly before propositions by the omission of that. "After that I had seen him once I did not wish to see him again;" "Before that Philip called thee I saw thee." That is, after that [thing] I had seen him once; before that [thing] expressed by the proposition Philip called thee. By the omission of that the following proposition stands after the preposition as its object. "After I had seen him once;" "Before Philip called thee." Prepositions thus used before propositions have precisely the same meaning that they have when used before nouns.

4. These remarks lead to the understanding of the true nature of such words as save, saving, except, but, provided, if, though, notwithstanding, etc.

"Thou born to eat and be despised and die,

Even as the beasts that perish, save that thou

Hadst a more splendid trough and wider sty."-Byron.

That [thing], thou hadst a more splendid trough and wider sty being safe (saved, excepted).

"There is no difference, except that some are heavier than others." That [thing], some are heavier than others, except (being excepted).

"What remains but that the sentence pass?" What remains be out that [thing] the sentence pass? Thing subject of the verb be in the imperative; the proposition the sentence pass in apposition with thing.

He is still rich, notwithstanding his losses;" "He is still rich, notwithstanding that he has lost so much;" "He is still rich, notwithstanding he has lost so much;" "He has lost much; he is, notwithstanding, rich." Withstanding in these passages is a participle modified by the adverb not, and having a noun or a proposition as nominative absolute. He is still rich, his losses not withstanding. He is still rich, that he has lost so much not withstanding; or that [thing] he has lost so much. He is still rich, he has lost so much not withstanding. He has lost much; he is, not withstanding this (this thing not withstanding), rich.

5. The imperative mood, the imperfect participle, and the passive participle may be used with propositions (either with or without that); but this use does not make conjunctions of them. "Admit that phosphorus is an essential part of the brain, is not phosphorus to be derived from other food than fish?" "Admitting that phosphorus," etc. "Admitted that phosphorus," etc. Admit is a verb in the imperative mood, having you or we as subject; admitting is an imperfect participle belonging to we, you, or some other general word; admitted is a passive participle belonging to thing understood (or, it may be said, to the whole proposition introduced by that). In the same way may be used grant, granting, granted; suppose, supposing, supposed; seeing, saving, assuming, etc. Provided has been called a conjunction; but it is simply a participle. "This act provides that no injury shall be done to others;" "It is provided that no injury shall be done to others;" "Provided that no injury shall be done to others;" "That no injury shall be done to others being provided.”

6. If, formerly gif, is from the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, to give. Gif is still retained in the Scottish dialect, as in the following passage, in which if and gif are used in the same sense:

"Yet if your catalogue be fou,

I'se no insist;

But gif ye want ac friend that's true,

I'm on your list."-Burns.

This word is said by Horne Tooke to be in the second person of the imperative mood. "If he said so, it is true"="Give (grant, admit, concede) he said so, it is true." Gin, evidently a contraction of the participle given (Anglo-Saxon gifen),† is found in the Scottish dialect; as,

"Gin I had kend he was your son,

He had ne'er been slayne by me."--Ballad of Gil Morrice.

"Gin ilka man had back his ain,

Of it you suld be heir."-Ballad of Fause Foodrage.

*The anglo-Saxon g was often sounded like y; and it is from this circumstance that such words as ge, geoc, in Anglo-Saxon have become ye, yoke, in English. From gif, pronounced yif, it would be easy to drop the comparatively weak sound of y.

The v is often dropped from this word; as, "I wad hae gi'en them off my hurdies."-Burns.