is known by the name of the Newtonian, or radiating theory, in which it is admitted that an imponderable fluid, caloric, radiates from a hotter body, to penetrate between the particles of a colder one, until the temperature of both has attained an equilibrium, and that this fluid travels with the rapidity of light, namely, 192,000 miles per second. Thus radiation takes place, not only from hot and luminous bodies, but also, from ice at thirty-two degrees, to solid mercury at thirty-nine degrees." It is this last theory that explains the reason why an opaque body, surrounded with a luminous atmosphere (such as the sun), can produce the sensation of heat; the radiating caloric of the sun's atmosphere acts upon the telluric atmosphere, and penetrates betwixt the particles of which it is composed, and so producing to us the sensation of heat.-WALTER. attempted to harmonise them. Suppose, now, that the textus receptus and authorised English version were to be displaced by Mr. A.'s adopted textus, and his English version of it, and that the passages which he pronounces contradictory were to be marked as such, or wholly expunged, in all our Bibles and New Testaments, what could be expected but that many thousands of simpleminded people who believe in a verbal inspiration would be reduced to a state of doubt, and that infidelity and irreligion would soon be rampant over the land? Still a change must undoubtedly before long be made. The authorised English version is in many respects faulty; it is a not very accurate translation from a very imperfect and corrupt Greek text, and were it only for his devoting himself in earnest to a task which has scarcely been attempted before by an English scholar, but which is evidently of paramount imisportance to a right understanding of Scripture,-viz., the settling of the Greek text upon a good basis and upon just grounds; or for his interpretation of that text and commentary upon it, which tends so much to its elucidation; or for the marginal references to verbal and idomatic usage, collected and arranged as they must have been at the cost of immense labour; or for the prolegomena, in which are discussed, with great ability, many unsettled questions respecting the authorship, design, time, and place of writing, connexion, &c., of the several books of the New Testament; for any one of these, Mr. A. must be considered to have rendered good and lasting service to the biblical literature of his country. The following is all I am able to collect of Mr. A.'s personal history. He graduated at Cambridge in 1832, when he took a first class both in classics and mathematics. In 1841-2 he was Hulsean Lecturer, and subsequently held the office of examiner in logic and moral philosophy in the University of London. Those of his works which (previous to the appearance of his edition of the "Greek Testament) obtained most notice were: his " Poems," some of which, and especially the minor pieces, are very beautiful; his "Pro-gumnasmata; or, Greek and Latin Exercises;" and "Lectures on the Influence of the Fifth Commandment," delivered in the theatre of the City of London School. He has also published numerous volumes of sermous, as well as other works. But his edition of the Greek Testament is undoubtedly his masterpiece, and by that probably, more than by any thing else he has yet written, will his name be known to posterity.-F. J. L. 166. Alford's Greek Testament.-As Vol. I. out of print and undergoing immediate revision, the same improvements will doubtless be introduced into the new edition; and as several im. portant works bearing upon the harmony, composition, and mutual relation of the four Gospels (as Smith's "Dissertation on the Origin and Connection of the Gospels," Westcott's" Harmony of the Gospels," Birks "Hora Evangelica," and Stroud's New Greek Harmony), have appeared since its first publication, Mr. A. may probably be induced to modify or alter some of the opinions he has so decidedly maintained in the first edition, and to which his high and increasing repu. tation as a scholar has given, and probably will give, among the theologians of this country and America, a deep and lasting influence. And therefore it appears the more necessary that the student should not become conversant with his Greek Testament, without also knowing what may be urged against some of those conclusious upon which he has based the whole superstructure of his theology; that he should be warned beforehand that the rationalistic element pervades every part of Vol. I., to a degree which is likely to be injurious to those who have not already made up their minds as to the perfect truthfulness of holy scripture as a whole, and whose belief is not deep rooted in the heart as well as in the intellect. In addition, therefore, to one or other of the works just named, I would recommend W. C., if possible, to peruse the following reviews of Vol. I.-viz., those contained in the Edinburgh Review," Vol. XCIV., pp. 1-46; Kitto's "Journal of Sacred Literature, New Series, No. III.; and "Christian Remembrancer, Vol. XXII.; especially the last, the writer of which is evidently a ripe scholar, and, though rather high as a churchman, is nevertheless a well-trained and earnest, though somewhat pugnacious theologian. Another critique upon Vol. II. has lately appeared in the same magazine (Christian Remembrancer," No. LXXXI for July), which I have not yet had an opportunity of reading myself, but have no doubt, if the reviewer is the same as in the former case, that Mr. A's errors are duly pointed out and commented upon in such a manner that the reader may at least see and avoid them if he will. The chief errors appear to me to be the rationalistic tendency alluded to, especially where it leads him, when two parallel passages contain some apparent discrepancies, to pronounce them irreconcilable, and his want of candour towards those who have 168. Studies and Qualifications for the Scotch Bar.-The corresponding term in English law to the Scotch" advocate" is "barrister.'" As to the studies and qualifications necessary for adruission to the Scotch bar-1. With regard to Studies-there is no prescribed course. The students invariably attend the three law classes in the University of Edinburgh, viz., the civil law, law of Scotland, and conveyancing, for two or three courses, and nearly as invariably the classes of humanity, logic, and thetoric. It is a custom of theirs also to devote a portion of their time to a law office. They thereby derive considerable advantage in observing the practical details of the profession, such as the forms of deeds, court and other papers, &c. To acquire an accurate knowledge of the conveyancing branch, attendance in an office where business of the kind is transacted cation. Amongst the judges we need only refer to Jeffrey and Cockburn, of our own day, and amongst the members of the bar, to Professor Aytoun, Professor Ferrier, Sir Archibald Alison, Lord Brougham, Mr. J. G. Lockhart, and Iro fessor Wilson, as distinguished in the world of literature. Mr. Christopher, Mr. Horsman, Colonel Mure, and Mr. W. F. Mackenzie, may be mentioned as members of the legislature who are enrolled as members of the faculty. We ought not, however, to forget in this periodical the name of Mr. James Simpson, so well known for his efforts for the elevation of the labouring classes, particularly as regards secular instruction, as one who reflects much honour upon the faculty. would be absolutely necessary. 2. Qualifications. | sometimes considered a requisite of a polite eduThe applicant for admission must be twenty years of age. He must be proficient in the Roman and Scottish laws, and a Latin scholar. He is first examined on the Roman, or, as it is called by way of pre-eminence, the civil law, as contained in Justinian's "Institutes." He undergoes a second examination at the expiry of a year on the law of Scotland, from the text in Erskine's "Principles." He has to compose a Latin thesis from a title in the "Pandects," and to defend it publicly before the faculty of advocates. The most encouraging, if it is not the most interesting, information to an aspirant is, perhaps, the fact that the judges of the supreme court, sheriffs principal, and other judicial officers, are selected from the faculty. The highest official appointments are filled by members, while all occupations of a legal or mental nature are open to them. Scottish gentlemen often pass for the status membership confers upon them in society; but eldest sons of noblemen, and near relations of the aristocracy, have not considered practice or its emoluments to be beneath them. Lord Brougham is a member.-L. M. B. An advocate is an individual who pleads at the bar of the supreme courts of Scotland. His services are required both in civil and criminal actions, and in debating cases to be decided by the judges of court, or by a jury. The Scotch advocate corresponds, generally, to the English | barrister. In many instances advocates, or counsel, as they are otherwise called, prepare the written parts of a case, and give written opinions on memorials submitted to them, with the view of guiding parties either as to raising or defending actions, or regarding the terms or management of trusts committed to them. Whilst an advocate is permitted to plead in any court, although he seldom does so in the inferior courts, as these are called, in the latter the agents or attorneys usually conduct the oral pleading, besides the other departments of a case. One body of agents, namely, those of Aberdeen, are allowed, by long usage, to call themselves advocates, and are generally known as such. The advocates form a society which had its origin shortly after the establishment of the Court of Session in Scotland, or, as it is called, the College of Justice, after the model of the parliament of Paris. At first the society did not consist of more than ten members, but it gradually increased, and now numbers between 400 and 500 members. The advocates, at one time, acted as attorneys as well as counsel; but they soon ceased to do so, and the attorneys were formed into societies distinct from the society or faculty of advocates. The faculty has the power of electing a president or dean, who is familiarly known as dean of faculty, and this office has been held, from time to time, by very eminent persons. Like all the other members of the College of Justice, advocates are under the control of the senators or judges, who can censure, suspend, or depose for any conduct derogatory to the character of the legal profession. The faculty has been adorned, since its origin in 1532, by many names distinguished in literature and politics. Individuals have frequently become members of the faculty for the sake of the severe training necessary, and for the knowledge of the civil law thereby acquired, a knowledge which is Although not incorporated by act of parliament, the faculty of advocates possesses various important privileges given by the legislature, or assumed by custom. From the faculty are prac tically chosen the judges or senators of the Supreme Court, and the sheriffs (the word being derived from the Saxon reeve, magistrate, or ruler; and sheer, to cut divide), the local judges in the different divisions of the country called shires or counties; and the lord advocate, or public prosecutor, formerly called the king's advocate; the solicitor-general, and several other law officers. As has been already observed, an advocate has the power of pleading in any court of law within the kingdom. He does not require any written mandate or authority, his gown being understood to supply the place of a written mandate. Unlike other members of the legal pro fession, he is not responsible for any wrong opinion which he may give, although, of course, it is his interest to give advice capable of standing the test of judicial discussion. The course of study requisite to become an advocate is long and laborious. He must possess a sound knowledge of the principles of the civil or Roman law, and of the law of Scotland, and must compose a satisfactory thesis on a title of the Pandects. Advocates are paid by honoraries or fees, the amount of which is optional with the employer. They are not presumed to be paid as if for work done; and the auditor or taxing otheer of court is not held at liberty to strike off res which have been paid to counsel. Such ideas as these circumstances imply regarding the dignity of the office, and the confidence reposed in them contribute much to maintain the character of the men who practise at the Scotch bar. Whilst & considerable number of advocates are able to live comfortably, or attain wealth, "briefless barristers" are as numerous in Scotland as in England The politics of the Scotch bar are mainly of the Tory kind. It has often been difficult for the liberal party to fill the law offices of the crown with men of ability, from the small number be longing to their own political party.-T. C Edinburgh. 171. The Pendulum Experiment. — Experimental illustrations may be divided into two classes, according as they are intended to facilitate the conception of a proposition, or to give pro bable or certain proof of it. Of the latter class is the experiment of M. Foucault. It is not designed to aid us in understanding the revolution of the earth, but to augment its evidence. It has, however, several disadvantages when applied to this end before a popular audience. The phenomenon which it offers for observation may arise from another cause than that assigned, namely, from an error of some sort in the conduct of the experiment; and, even if that be perfect, the connexion between the cause assigned and the phenomenon exhibited must always be very difficult to explain to such an audience. I will endeavour to make it as simple as I can, cautioning J. S. that he must not consider my explanation complete. a d Let the line from a to b be vertical, and at a let a string be held, to which is hung a weight, resting at b. Raise the weight to c, and let it go carefully; it will, in falling, pass through b, rise to d, and continue to oscillate in the same plane; c but if in letting it go any force be applied tending out of the plane of the paper, the weight will pass on one side of b, rise to d (not exactly), and return on the other side of b, thus describing a sort of elliptic curve about b. We will suppose this not to take place. If the experimenter, still holding the string at a, walk round it, he will find that the weight continues to oscillate in the same direction notwithstanding. The same may be observed by suspending the weight within a carriage, and setting it to oscil late-say in the direction of the length of the carriage; on turning a corner, the oscillation will be across the carriage-that is, in the same direction as before. (A)-If the same apparatus were suspended above one of the poles of the earth, and set to oscillate, the earth by its revolution would not alter the plane of oscillation, which would, therefore, coincide in turn with every meridiau in the course of twenty-four hours; and, to an observer at the pole, will appear to have turned completely round in twenty-four hours. (B). If the same were done at the equator, where the line from the point of suspension to the centre of the earth is perpendicular to the axis of the earth's rotation, and therefore the earth does not twist at all about it, the plane of oscillation will not apparently change its position at all. If it be set to oscillate north and south, or east and west, it will continue to do so. At any intermediate point we may, for convenience, consider the motion of the earth as composed of two motions; one about a vertical through the point of suspension, with a velocity proportional to the sine of the latitude; and another about an axis perpendicular to this, with a velocity proportional to the cosine. These two motions being supposed to co-exist, are equivalent to the one rotation about the line through the poles. With reference to the second of these motions, the pendulum is circumstanced as in B: and with reference to the first, as in A. The first, then, is the only one which will have any effect, and, as in A, the whole motion will appear to be transferred in an opposite direction to the plane of oscillation of the pendulum. So that the ap parent revolution of the plane of oscillation in different latitudes will be as the sine of the latitude, and therefore, in England, about 11 degrees an hour. Accordingly, Mr. T. G. Bunt has given an account of some experiments made at Bristol, in June or July, 1851, exhibiting a rotation of 11 degrees, in exact conformity with the theory. The difficulty of the experiment consists in the number of conditions to be satisfied to prevent the formation of the elongated ellipse before referred to. The bob must not be made of a metal sensibly magnetic, must be of equal density throughout, must be accurately turned and hung, must be let go without the application of any force, &c. If the first condition be not complied with the bob will be attracted out of the plane; a defect in the second or third will cause the resistance of the air to be greater on one side than on the other. In most of the attempts to exhibit the phe nomenon in London due care was by no means" taken. Out of four which I witnessed, only one was of any value.-J. B. 172. The Construction of an Ellipsis.- It would be quite premature on our part to decide either for or against the friend, who asserts that he has established a geometrical demonstration by which he is able to construct an ellipsis by a geometrical continued motion. If we knew the whole of the evidence we should occupy a much better position.-G. N. 173. Paraphrase of Milton.-"Thus did the prince of angels speak; to whom the adversary thus replied:-Think thou not to awe me with wind of aery threats, whom yet thou canst not awe with thy deeds. Hast thou turned the least of these to flight, or caused them to fall, but that they rose again unvanquished; and shouldst thou, then, hope to deal easier with me; and thou, imperious being, chase me hence with threats? Think not, falsely, that thus shall end the strife, which thou callest evil, but which we style the strife of glory, and which we mean to win, or turn this heaven itself into the hell thou fablest; and to dwell here at least, if not to reign. Meanwhile, I do not fly thy utmost force (and join him named Almighty to thy aid), but have sought thee far and near." The construction of the first three lines "Stanislaus" has quoted is a classical construction imitated in English. Milton's poetic soul was moulded in the ancient school, and consequently became saturated with classic images and classic style. He loved to introduce into English composition classical forms of expression and inversions, which, however, cannot be done without rendering the sense obscure, since the English language admits of no inflexions. In fact, it is next to an impossibility to read Milton with any degree of certainty or pleasure without a knowledge of the classics, so frequent are his allusions and so inverted his style of expression. "To whom thus the adversary" (replied, understood by ellipsis). Vide Virgil's “Eneid," lib. i. ver. 76, "Eolus hæc contra;" lib. i. ver. 335, "Tum Venus. Ovid's" Metamorphoses," lib. i. fab. 6, ver. 66, Atque ita." Also frequently in the "Iliad," "Ως έφατ' "Ως φάτο. "Nor think thou with wind of aery threats to awe whom with deeds thou canst not. "Quis magno melius succedat Achilli Quam per quem magnus Danais successit Achilles." Ovid's "Metamorphoses," lib. xiii. fab. 1, ver. 134. O'DELL. Were we to paraphrase the lines you have given, we should do so somewhat as follows:"The prince of angels having spoken thus, was auswered by the adversary in the following man ner: 'Do not think with wind or empty threatenings to frighten one whom you cannot affright with deeds. Have you ever put one of the least of these my followers to flight? Perhaps you have; nay, you may now have caused one to fall before you; but it has been that he might rise again to prosecute with greater vigour the war. Do not err, then, by supposing that by your imperious threatenings you will be able to chase me from this place, and by this simple means to put an end to the strife, which you call the strife of evil, but which we designate the strife of glory, and which we mean to win, or turn this heaven itself into the hell which you have fabled; for we intend not only to retain our station, but to retain it free, if not to reign. In the interim I challenge thy utmost force; and not only thine, but, joined with thee, the force of him whom thou dost call Almighty, to drive me from my purpose; nor shall I fly before this double force, for I have always sought thy opposition." 2. Secondly. The lines are these: 1. "So spake the prince of angels; to whom thus 3. 4. The difficulty appears to commence with "adversary, which is the nominative case to a verb (replied) understood. "Nor think," &c. "Nor sometimes begins a sentence, with reference to some negative meaning implied."-Smart. It here stands for do not. "Thou" is the nominative case to "think." "To awe" is governed in the infinitive by "think," and governs him, understood, in the objective case. "Whom is the objective case of" canst" awe; awe is understood. Many liberties are allowed in poetry which would not be tolerated in prose.-G. N. 175. "Spinoza's Philosophical System" is not so much designated Atheism as Pantheism, and is generally a lopted in modern times by those who believe in the "eternity of matter." That theory maintains that there exists in the universe but one substance, variously modified, whose two principal attributes are, infinite extension and infinite intelligence. This substance Spinoza regarded as God, and hence his system is called Pantheism; or in other words, that Nature is God, and that all the various modifications of Nature are so many parts of God, and that we also are parts likewise of God: thus contounding the material universe with the Supreme Being; and, as a consequence of these views," he denies," to use the language of Van Mildert, "a Provi dence, scoffs at the doctrine of heaven and hell, and of evil spirits, represents all divine worship as uugatory and ridiculous, as vain superstition the expectation of rewards or punishments in a future state; and, like all other unbelievers, he showed his baseness, by making a profession of Christianity at the very moment he was endeavouring to stab her to the heart."—WALTER. tian population of Egypt, is now universally acknowledged to be substantially the same as the old Egyptian. It is imperfectly understood, since it has long ceased to be a living speech. Yet the ultimate analysis of its elements shows it to have been akin to the Semitic, and derived from a common source." The Coptic of the present day is, then, materially the ancient Egyptian; but written in Greek characters, with some few old Egyptian ones retained, for which the Greek language had no equivalent. It is now preserved, and has to be studied in the christian liturgies of Egypt. Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," or Kenrick's "Ancient Egypt," will supply "Solon" with all necessary information about " Old Egypt." Kenrick's work is highly valued. For a small work, "Ancient Egypt (6d.), published by the Religious Tract Society, is very useful. 4th. India, in a wide extent of the name, was, it is thought, civilized somewhat earlier than Egypt, which probably derived its civilization from India when the descendants of Ham populated the country. 5th. The inscriptions of the Nineveh sculptures are in the cuneiform character, but, as yet, it is not possible to tell in what language they are written. The results of Major Rawlin son's study of the cuneiform character are not as yet entirely published, but probably will be soon. For these "Solon" must patiently wait.-J. B.MC. 179. The Order in which to prosecute Mathematical Studies.-" An Earnest Student should first make himself complete master of arithmetic, and then proceed with algebra and Euclid smul taneously. When he has mastered the elements of algebra, as far as the binomial theorem, he may take up plane trigonometry and the elements of mechanics. I would advise him to go no farther until he has thoroughly mastered the above subjects, constantly recurring to one while studying another; else he will keep forgetting much of what he has learnt, and waste much time and labour. He may next proceed with the subjects in the following order,-spherical trigonometry, geometrical conic sections, elements of analytical geometry, elements of hydrostatics, Newton's Principia. He should then take up the elements of the differential and integral calculus, which will enable him to proceed, at once, in whatever order he please, to the higher parts of mechanics and hydrostatics, optics and astronomy, &c. The following works are, I believe, most approved, and most of them I can strongly recommend, from my own acquaintance with them:-Elementary Writers, Colenzo's" Arithmetic" and "Key;" Colenzo's "Algebra," Part I., and" Key:" Petts (standard edition of) "Euclid;" Colenzo's Trigonometry," Part II., and Key; Hustler's "Geometrical Conics;' Hymers Analytical Geometry;" Phears Hydrostaties; Evans "Newton;" Todhunter's "Differential and Inte gral Calculus." The higher works required would be: - Peacock's "Algebra:" Wilson's "Trigonometry;" Earnshaw's "Staties;" Wison's "Dynamics;" Salmon's "Analytical Co nics," and " Higher Plane Curves ;' Miller's Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics;" Grifhus 176. Ancient Languages. -1st. The Vedas, &c. of the Hindoos are written in Sanscrit, the old language of Hindustan. 2nd. Dr. Yutes'" Grammar" (18s.) an " Dictionary (55s.) are consi-" Optics; Hymers' "Astronomy." dered very good works for the acquirement of the anguage, and may be obtained through order of any good bookseller. 3rd "The Coptic," says Mr. Do ne, in Smith's Dict. of Gr. and Rom. Geog., s. v. Ægyptus," the language of the native chris Some of even these works are called elementary, and indeed, properly so, when we consider the vast extent of some of the subjects. The following companions are almost indispen sable:- Goodwin's "Problems," and "Key;" Wrigley's "Examples;" Davidson's (6s.) or Hut- In conclusion, mathematical study may be purton's (18s.)" Mathematical Tables." sued to the highest degree possible, and contiPhysics need not be studied together with manually will it be discipline of the mind. If "An thematics: but they add greatly to the advantage Earnest Student" have health, time, and taste for and delight obtained from the study of the mathe- the study, he may pursue it till he arrive at the matics. Dr. Lardner's "Handbook of Natural learning of Newton, and still will he find ample Philosophy and Astronomy," in 3 vols., of which material for discipline of the mind, in further and vol. III. is not yet published, is the most desirable. deeper researches.-J. B. MC. The Young Student and Writer's Assistant. LOGIC CLASS. Junior. What does Bacon term idols? What are idols of the tribe? Describe their chief species. What are idols of the cave? Describe their chief species. What are idols of the forum? What are idols of the theatre? Describe their chief species. Provectior.-Exercise No. IX., Vol. II. Senior-Whence arises our belief or knowledge of the objective? GRAMMAR CLASS. Make a form like the one given, and place the verbs governed in the infinitive mood by verbs, The rising of the sun was very glorious. To get good and to communicate are the business of life. My father's hearing is not so good as formerly. The eye is not satisfied with seeing, nor the ear with hearing. Before leaving town I am to call at the office. Being from home at this season of the year is very inconvenient. For me to live is Christ, and to die is gain. To prepare a perfect statement requires time. Doing justly, loving mercy, and walking humbly with God, includes the whole duty of man. I thought to have a long holiday, but my employer wishes me to return on an early day. Obedience ought to be prompt. The new world is said to have been discovered by Columbus. It ought to have been named after him. 1 ought to have been here yes SYNTAX. RULE III.-One verb governs another in the infinitive mood. RULE IV. The infinitive mood and present participle are sometimes used as nouns; and, as have case. nouns, |