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placed." The Dublin Freeman's Journal ments. We owe our loyalty to the holy says: "A national priesthood sprung from Roman see; and perish the thrones of kings the people, and educated at home, could not and queens of earth rather than that shall remain passive in the struggle of their race be in the slightest degree tarnished. As for religious equality." Compare this with the spiritual power infinitely exceeds the the following from "A Catholic Journal and temporal, so does our loyalty to the holy Review," part xlv., September, 1851, which see that which we owe to the Queen." says:-"It is difficult to say in which of the Reiffenstuel is a standard author at Maytwo popular expressions-the rights of civil nooth,, and is referred to both by tutors and liberty, or the rights of religious liberty'— pupils, in their studies, as an authority on is embodied the greatest amount of nonsense the question of religious liberty and alleand falsehood. . . . Let this pass, then, in the giance. Speaking of princes, he says (lib. v. case of Protestants and politicians. But how tit. vii. p. 252):-"They are not to permit can it be justified in the case of Catholics, the exercise of their religion (that is, the who are the children of a church which has | religion of heretics); they are zealously to ever avowed the deepest hostility to the prin- exterminate them to the uttermost of their ciples of religious liberty, and which never power; they are to be sworn to do this. But has given the shadow of a sanction to the if they shall be unwilling, let them be detheory that 'civil liberty, as such, is neces- prived of the honours they hold-be inelisarily a blessing at all?... Believe us not, gible for other honours-be bound under exProtestants of England and Ireland, for an communication, and their lands placed under instant, when you see us pouring forth our an interdict of the church." And again:liberalisms. When you hear a Catholic orator "If, therefore, a temporal ruler, required at some public assemblage declaring solemnly and admonished by the church, shall have that 'this is the most humiliating day in his neglected to purge his territory of heretical life, when he is called upon to defend once filth, let him be bound by the chain of exmore the glorious principles of religious free- communication, by the metropolitan and dom,' be not too simple in your credulity. other com-provincial bishops; and if he shall These are brave words, but they mean nothing. have refused to make satisfaction within a He is not talking Catholicism, but nonsense year, let this be signified to the Pope, that and Protestantism. You ask, if he were he may declare his vassals to be thenceforth lord in the land, and you in the minority, if absolved from their allegiance to him, and not in numbers, yet in power, what would give up his territory to Catholics, who, withhe do to you? If it would benefit the cause out any contradiction, shall possess it, having of Catholicism he would tolerate you; if exterminated the heretics from it."* I will expedient he would imprison you, banish you, conclude, for the present, by reiterating the fine you; possibly, he might even hang you. language of the British Banner, in reference But, be assured of one thing: he would never to Maynooth:-"What householder was ever tolerate you for the sake of the 'glorious so infatuated as to furnish duplicate keys to principles of civil and religious liberty.'"† a burglar personally known, and avowedly I have said the teachings of Maynooth are intent on plundering his plate, jewels, and seditious, and given extracts from Bellarime, other valuables, and, it might be, taking his as quoted by the editor of the "Bulwark;" own life? Since the world began, what an illustration of the practical work-power was ever so insane as to subsidize an ing of this instruction at Maynooth. The enemy, and thus furnish him with the means Tablet, some time ago, made the following of its own defeat and humiliation? The statement:-"We respect the authority of religion of the Thugs is murder! Would the vicar of Christ infinitely more than we any but a nation of Bedlamites not only do any musty act of parliament. We con- tolerate the professors of that religion of sider our allegiance due to the Roman throne blood, but actually supply, from the national first of all, and second to that, and in an treasury, the funds for supporting a manuinfinitely lower sense, to mere civil govern- factory of daggers? Such questions may

here

Inglis's "Ireland," p. 341.

+Appendix to Speech of R. Spooner, Esq., May 11, 1852.

Quoted in the speech of R. Spooner, Esq., in the House of Commons, May 11, 1852.

seem to bear somewhat the nature of an insult as addressed to men of sound reason; and well they may; but such precisely, at this moment, is an image of the British empire; it is the very thing-in a matter

infinitely higher than aught that is mortalwhich is now being done by Protestant England" in continuing the support of Maynooth by the government grant. L'OUVRIER.

The Societies Sertion.

REPORTS OF MUTUAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETIES.

Mutual Improvement Society, St. Paul'ssquare, London.-One of the hopeful aspects of the age in which we live, as well as one of the illustrations of the progress of the early closing|| movement, is the fact that a mutual improvement society in a house of business is now a possible thing. It is a straw on the stream of time that

indicates progress in the right direction. Our society, at Mr. George Hitchcock's, St. Paul's Churchyard, is an interesting specimen of this. It numbers upwards of a hundred members, and is in a very flourishing condition. The session extends over the last three months of one year and the first three months of the next. For two months our establishment is closed at six o'clock, and for four months at seven; so that we are privileged in regard to time for the purposes of mental discipline. Our leading operations (conducted every Friday) are, lectures, debates, and elocution classes; but we often vary these, principally to sustain the interest of the members, on which the success of such a society so much depends. Some of our most successful political debates have been conducted in the form of a senate. For the time being we resolve ourselves into representatives of constituencies, induct a ministry into office, organize an opposition, and, as far as possible, conform to the usages and customs of the House of Commons. At our last senate the opposition brought in a bill for the abolition of capital punishment, and the substitution of transportation, which was carried against the government by a majority of two. Another feature is the delivery of orations on such subjects as the Immortality of the Soul, Public Progress, and the Power of Public Opinion. Again, we have lately had a trial, by judge and jury, for seditious libel in a newspaper, our object being to discuss the rights of a free press. The judge and counsel appeared in official costume. We have received most valuable aid from ministers and gentlemen, in the shape of lectures. During the last two sessions, the Rev. C. Stovel has lectured on" Beauty;" the Rev. H. Batchelor, on "Ethnology:" the Rev. G. Smith, on" Memory" the Rev. S. Nolan, on "History;" the Rev. I. Bigwood, on "The Gypsies ;" and the Rev. S. Martin, on" Mutual Improvement:" George Grossmith, Esq., has lectured on " Wit and Humour" and the "Recent Works of Charles Dickens." We have also been favoured with two lectures from Mrs. Clara Lucas Balfour, on "The Female Poets of the Nineteenth Century" and "The Uses of Poetry, and the Mission of the Poet." The present session was opened with a lecture by the Rev. Wm. Forster, on The Life of Wellington; its Lessons to Young Men:"

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We have good grounds for anticipating from the extension of these educational movements-whether in the form of mutual improvement societies, or contributions from the press-a glorious future for England; glorious in the universality of its mental culture and intellectual achievements.-T. P., Sec.

Chertsey, Surrey, Mutual Improvement Society.-This society was formed on January 1st, 1852, and is based upon very liberal principles, its chief aim being the elevation of the working classes. At first its progress was cheering; but a falling off occurred in the summer months. An attempt was made to carry on discussions. One of the members brought forward the question of" Capital Punishment," but the meetings being poorly attended, the interest of the few was not enough to counteract the indifference of the many. The members, not being daunted, entertained the idea of improving each other with a course of amateur lectures as the winter months came on. The following is a list of those already given:"Spelling Reform," by Mr. J. F. McFarlane;

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Chemistry," by Mr. G. Boyce; "Working Classes and Trades' Societies," by Mr. W. Hicks; "Human Hair," by Mr. A. Martyr; "Heat, Light, and Electricity," by Mr. J. Tombs; "Origin of Christianity in Britain," by Mr. T. S. Driver; "Claims of Tectotalism," by Mr. E. Winsor; “Advantages of acquiring Knowledge," by Mr. J. Bar tholomew; "Electro-Metallurgy," by Mr. H. W. Cartwright; "The Origin of Printing," by Mr. S. Driver: "Recent Discoveries at Nineveh," by Mr G. Tucker. The local papers speak well of these lectures; and thus the members by their own efforts are improving themselves and others. The society, from the commencement of the course of lectures, has been steadily increasing, and now numbers between fifty and sixty members.→ T. S. D.

Auchterarder Young Men's Mutual Improvement Society.-A great desideratum has beet supplied. Our young men have at length aroused themselves from the deep intellectual lethargy in which they lay. As if animated by a common impulse, they have wisely resolved no longer to

be enslaved under the thraldom of indolence, but to make active and united efforts in pursuing the tortuous path of mental culture. What they could not do individually, they may effect collectively, A spur will be given to their intellectual faculties. and a laudable emulation will necessarily arise. Their strife will be all for a common object their aim will be all for the common good. Advantages they had not even dreamed of may be derived; and, though ditficulties may at first beset the way, and lowering clouds obscure the horizon, all will yet be made smooth and brilliant. Diligence and application must be their watchwords, and the motto to be emblazoned on their banners should be "Wise in planning-firm in carrying out." A meeting was held on the evening of the 31st of January last, in the Masons' Hall, for the purpose of organizing a society. Mr. Peter Paton was called to the chair, and explained the object of the meeting. Sixteen young men enrolled their names as members, and there is a good prospect of a considerable accession to that number. We were quite satisfied with so fair a start. Rules and regulations drawn up from the excellent model ones in the British Controversialist of February, 1851, were then read to the members, and, with a few slight

variations, approved of and adopted. The order of reading the essays (which are to embrace scientific and literary papers and historical and biographical sketches) was then laid down in terms of the rules, and lectures and social meetings also provided for. Each alternate evening is to be devoted to debates on interesting subjects; and, if time allows, recitations and readings from good English authors will be given each evening after the essays and debates. The following members were elected office-bearers: — Peter Paton, president; Robert Mailler, secretary; and John Thomson, treasurer, These, along with Messrs. John McGrouther, Peter Faichney, James Henderson, and Andrew Oswald, to be a committee of management; three to form a quorum. The ordinary meetings are to be held weekly, on Monday evenings. The success of the society depends altogether on good management, diligence, and perseverance on the part of the members, and punctual attendance. It is laid on a good solid basis; and if the members perform the requirements of duty, it cannot fail to enlist popular favour, and will undoubtedly prove of incalculable benefit to our rising youth. We hope to be able ere long to report favourably of its progress.--R. M.

The Inquirer.

QUESTIONS REQUIRING ANSWERS.

149. Would your clever correspondent, C. W., Jun., be kind enough, through the medium of the magazine, to refer me to a more extended list of books in law, science, philosophy, and general literature, than is contained in the last number of the magazine, as the works mentioned there are more applicable to a theological than a law student?-A LAW STUDENT.

150. Would any of your friends be kind enough to explain to me fully the science and practice of foreign exchanges, and the various influences which generally cause the exchanges to rule high and low between different countries? I recollect noticing a series of articles on exchanges in the Economist, about the year 1847. Could you inform me whether those articles were reprinted in a separate form? If so, please state price. I have no doubt, Mr. Editor, you will say, why did you not embrace the opportunity of noticing those articles for your permanent advantage? My plea is, that I was in my minor years.-W. U.

151. Would any of your correspondents be kind enough to suggest to me any books which contain information on the origin, progress, and history in general of Sunday schools, both at home and abroad?-J. F.

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS.

103. Monmouthshire not in Wales.-B. W. P. regrets that "Hynafieithydd" should have reason

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to complain of inaccuracies in that portion of his letter which was forwarded by B. W. P. to the Controversialist. He begs to assure "Hynafieithydd" that he was not cognizant of errors at all, it being the subject merely, and not verbal accuracy or inaccuracy, which attracted his notice, and induced the republication. The corrections made by "Hynafieithydd" in a following number of the newspaper he was not aware of. So far, however, from being grieved," as "Hynafieithydd" supposes, B. W. P. has great pleasure in expressing how gratified he felt on seeing the subject thus dealt with by different parties, enabling those to form a judgment upon it who, like himself, have few opportunities for research. B. W. P. may add, that the notion which gave rise to this correspondence was one which he had frequently encountered, but of which, till the appearance of these letters, the only solution he had received was from a learned editor (not the editor of the Controversialist), who so far enlightened his inquirer as to hint that " the schoolmaster must have been sadly abroad during his attendance at school "-an answer which was, of course, highly satisfactory!

138. The Cause of Mist and Fog.-Mist and fog I take to express two different degrees of the same natural phenomenon, a mist being a slight fog. The cause of mist or fog is evaporation, or the imperceptible formation of vapour, which takes place at almost all temperatures short of freezing. When the air is dry, this evaporation is absorbed as it rises; when the air is already moist, and there is no wind to carry these evaporative products away, they rapidly accumulate, so as to become visible, and are then termed mist or fog.

The cause of fog and mist is the same both in cities and country; the nature or composition varies. The steam of a reeking graveyard, or of a stagnant marsh, on a warm wet day in autumn, is of course different to the mist that shades the Thames at Richmond-bridge in the early dawn. Perhaps five-sixths of London fog is generally smoke which cannot rise on account of the heaviness of the atmosphere. Since pure air is what we require for the purposes of health, it is evident that fog must "be prejudicial to health;" moreover, the damp state of the atmosphere must check the insensible perspiration which is so essential to our well-being. The precise description of the "why so," I must, however, leave to medical correspondents. The visibility of the breath in foggy weather arises from the air being already so surcharged with moisture as to be unable at once to absorb any additional quantity. -J. A.

140. Logically True and Practically False.-Your correspondent, "Homo," might have invented a case attended with fewer objections than the one given in your January number, and involving the same difficulty. For example, let us suppose that on perfectly level and smooth ice two perfectly round and smooth balls (A and B) are set in motion in the same direction, in the same straight line, and at the same instant of time, the one (B) 100 yards precisely before the other: (A); let us suppose also that both move uniformly, and the ball A ten times as fast as the ball B. Does not the following statement appear true? When B has rolled ten yards, A will have rolled 100; when B has rolled eleven yards, A will have rolled 110. While A is passing through the next one yard, B (by supposition) will have passed through another tenth of a yard. While A passes through this tenth, B will have advanced another hundredth, and so on ad infinitum. Consequently A can never overtake B. Where is the fallacy of this? In answering this question, we may leave out of consideration the effects of friction, and of the resistance of the air, and also the possibility that the two balls could not both he set in motion so as to go on uniformly in a straight line. These things doubtless might practically render an experiment nugatory; but there is an assumption in the case supposed, the distinct apprehension of which may relieve some practical men. It is assumed that the balls are mathematical points, having position, but not magnitude. Give them both a diameter of an inch, or any appreciable smaller magnitude, and collision becomes inevitable. Let each thinker trace for himself the consequence of giving them a sensible magnitude. Theoretically, in the case (of the clock) which "Homo" put, if we may ignore friction of machinery and non-uniformity of motion, and if we leave out the circumstance that clock-hands must have breadth (and possibly another circumstance or two), "the minute hand would never overtake the hour hand." But is it logically accurate (certainly it is not mathematically accurate), to disregard these things?-K. G.

The question simply is this, Do the laws of logic sanction the argument to prove that the minute hand of a clock can never overtake the hour hand? If the argument be logically false, the example, instead of showing the folly of logic, will, from the fact of its being a test, make it very probable that logic is trustworthy, even to those who close

their eyes to its axiomatic evidence. Let us try to put the argument into the form of a syllogism. A is B, B is C, therefore A is C; for, until it is in that form (or in a series of such forms) logic does not know it. Call the distance from 12 to 1 a space. If the hour hand (h) of a clock be at 1, and the minute hand (m) at 0 (that is, 12), (A) m can never overtake ; for (1), when i has moved over that space, h will be of a space in advance; (2) when m has moved over that of a space, h will be of a space in advance, &c. These assertions, put into the form necessary to prepare them (if possible) for logical process, are(1) The time in which travels over one space,

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a time at whose expiration the hour hand will be in advance of the minute hand. The form of this is, A is B, C is D, E is F, &c. Where A, B, &c., are all different, and the conclusion P is Q (where P and Q are different from A, B, &c.), cannot result from logic.

If any one object to my rendering of the conclusion (A), I would remind him that I have only translated the word never so as to make the sentence a possible subject of logic. Whether he object to my rendering of the word or not is of little importance, for the reason stated above, that the premises contain no terms in common, and so can furnish no conclusion.-J. B.

I fear both "Homo" and his instructors would be nonplussed by his friend. To my mind E. S. J. has only increased the difficulty of this question. "Homo" admits that the minute hand will overtake the hour hand, and wishes logic to be cleared of the imputation of proving the opposite, and not to have Berkeley's theory, pen dulums, windlass, &c., thrown at his own head. The matter is still worse confused by E. S.J. supposing such an absurdity as that the two hands will "simultaneously attain" parallelism at 1, or rather five minutes past 1. "The of five minutes remaining to the minute hand st this point" will most certainly appear on any clock dial of tolerable dimensions. In like manner "A Labourer" has fallen into error. The logic of" Homo's" friend is not founded on the supposition that "a given space can be divided into infinity," but that a given space can he divided into an infinite number of infinitesimally small portious, a supposition we cannot deny. The fallacy lies in confounding this with the infinite time which the mind would take in conceiving each of these infinitesimal parts separately. H. J. R. has ingeniously answered the question as it stands in his first remark; but as "Homo's" friend might have instanced two streams of water flowing continuously at different velocities, the reply only shuns Scylla by falling into Charybdis. His second reply has hit the truth, though unfortunately being "unacquainted with the terms of logic," he has failed to drive it home. Logic (with due respect to E. S. J.) is the chemistry of reasoning, whereby we detect adulteration." It shows that all true deductive reasoning can be

reduced to the form of a syllogism. A is B, B is C, therefore A is C; and it adds other rules to ensure the accuracy of the syllogism. The reasoning in question cannot be put in syllogistic form, and hence at the very outset logic disowns and condemns it. The nearest approach to the syllogistic form of which the pseudo-argument is capable runs thus:-At a certain time (viz., five minutes past 1) the hour hand is of five minutes in advance. At a certain other time, (viz., of five minutes later) the hour hand is of of five minutes in advance, &c., whence " Homo's friend concludes therefore at all possible times the hour hand is something in advance! Put into symbols, it reads thus: A is B, C is B, &c., therefore Y is Z. Logic triumphantly shows the folly of such sophistication.-B. S.

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142. How to obtain Ease and Power in Debate. -Our friend "Timon" is in a dilemma common to most rising intellects, and often to minds of maturity. In order to give a satisfactory answer to his inquiry we must first remind him, that to conduct successfully a debate, and to deliver "prepared speeches," are two vastly different mental exercises. The speeches may as much lack the logical continuity as the social debates. The want is a radical one. It originates in a defective mental tuition. Debating and speechifying, if we may use such terms, are distinct things, and are generally the results of widely different mental habitudes. Generally, though not necessarily, in a speech we look for a good style, beautiful diction, sublime thought, energy, and pathos. A debate may lack all these, and yet be intrinsically excellent, i. e., if it have logical continuity sustaining the harmony of the parts. In order to render prominent our meaning, we say that to the mind belong two distinct powers, which we shall here denominate the analytical and synthetical powers. The cultivation, and consequently the exercise, of the latter is the most natural, pleasing, and easy to the mind. "A little knowledge" is often enough to call it into exercise, and produce apparently great results. This is not the case with the former. The tuition and exercise of the analytical faculty is more difficult and nobler; it yields less fruit, but it has in quality what it lacks in quantity. If we look into the literature of the present time, we shall see a striking illustration of what we have stated. We see the workings of the synthetical faculty in the innumerable works of fiction constantly in the market, in which, taken as a whole, there is less intellectual power displayed than in any other branch of our literature. On the other hand, we see the working of the analytical faculty in a few reviews," in which the display of intellectual power is colossal and immense. It is a statement which will bear investigation, that the intellect of the present century has made criticism the arena on which it has displayed its sublime might. Destroy the "reviews" of the past, and what is then left of the grand productions of such intellects as Foster, Hall, Jeffrey, Macaulay, and many others? They have given to the world their criticisms as the imperishable tablets of their immortality. We have illustrated our position. In debates there must be the exercise of this analytical faculty to ensure success; if it is wanting, "the subject matter" may well appear confused and" enveloped in mystery." Without it there can be no intellectual power in debate,

any more than there can be logic without argument. We can easily read "Timon's" part-intellectual life in this inquiry. He has been cultivating the synthetical faculty with care and delight; and doubtless, were he to collect all his productions, he would be amazed at the quantity, considering the time and talent expended. But whatever be the number of articles, essays, volumes, &c., there is, we presume, little logical continuity, and perhaps not one sparkling scrap of pure criticism in the whole. Fiction, idealism, poetic flights, brilliant, laconic, but unconnected sentences, may, we doubt not, be found. These will not survive the storm of a debate, but rather confuse the mind and paralyze its powers pro tempore. Fact, logic, argumentation, continuity, can only attain the laurel in a great philosophic debate. What, then, is the conclusion, or what definite advice do we present to "Timon?" It is this:-Cultivate now, with great care and industry, the analytical faculty. Revert the order of your intellectual action. Exchange fiction for fact, and idealism for logic. You have long been learning to build, now learn to unbuild. You have raised the edifice, now take it down, and examine every stone with the care of an alchemist and the research of a modern chemist. Master the first six books of Euclid; fathom Locke; understand Bacon; and digest carefully Whately on logic. Become conversant with the simple principles of inductive philosophy; "remember Bacon, and abjure despair." When you have done this, then may you come forth into the arena of debate, terrible and mighty as a young lion from his lair.

In conclusion, remember that your knowledge of the subject for debate must be as extensive and profound as your logical power is great in order to ensure success. You must not only be a great thinker, but a great and careful reader. In one of our leading reviews we find these words:-"No man can be a great thinker in our days upon large and elaborate questions without being also a great student. To think profoundly it is indispensable that a man should have read down to his own starting point, and have read as a collating student to the particular stage at which he himself takes up the subject." This change in study and mental action, combined with profundity of thought and knowledge, is, we think, the only remedy for the case before us.-ROLLA.

144. Why Lord Palmerston does not sit in the House of Lords.- By article 4 of the act of union with Ireland (39 and 40 George III., cap. 67), twenty-eight lords temporal elected for life are to represent the peers of Ireland in the House of Lords; and any peer not elected may, if he think fit, sit in the House of Commons. So by article 22 of the act of union with Scotland, sixteen lords temporal elected for each parliament are to represent the peers of Scotland. No legal English title is unrepresented in the House of Lords. Such titles as Lord John Russell, Viscount Maidstone, Marquis of Stafford, et cetera, are only titles by courtesy.-LEX.

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